SUMMARY
A complex interplay of colonial legacies, military influence, and political upheavals has marked Venezuela's history. From the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 to a series of dictatorships and eventual transition to democracy in 1958, the country has faced continuous challenges. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw significant turmoil, including widespread protests, economic crises, and the rise of Hugo Chávez, whose Bolivarian Revolution brought sweeping reforms and increased militarization. Under Nicolás Maduro, Venezuela has grappled with severe political and economic instability, leading to violent government crackdowns on dissent. In recent years, the government and organized crime have become increasingly intertwined, with criminal networks exerting control over parts of the economy, security forces, and territory. Additionally, the presence of Colombian guerrillas has exacerbated security concerns and diplomatic tensions. Throughout this period, the UCDP has consistently recorded one-sided violence by the Venezuelan government against civilians.
From Colonial Rule to Dictatorships and Early Democracy
The northern region of South America was part of the Spanish colonial "New Granada" until an armed struggle led by Simón Bolívar expelled the Spanish in 1819, leading to the creation of the Union of Gran Colombia. However, this union collapsed in 1830, resulting in the independent states of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. Venezuela's post-independence political history was marked by a series of dictatorships, with increasing military influence, notably under the governments of Juan Vicente Gómez (1908-1935) and Marcos Pérez Jiménez (1948-1958). In 1958, a bloodless military coup ousted Pérez Jiménez after criticism from large landowners, the economic elite, and mass demonstrations, leading to a transition to democracy. Democratic instability continued as a split within the ruling Democratic Party in 1960 led to a left-wing faction merging with a communist opposition movement, inspiring a faction of the navy to attempt a failed coup in July 1962. Despite experiencing high economic growth during the 1970s energy crisis due to its large oil resources, Venezuela's decline in oil prices in the 1980s and rampant corruption plunged the country into a deep recession, sparking strong opposition to the government.
El Caracazo and Military Coups (1989-1992)
In February 1989, widespread street protests erupted against government policies, prompting a brutal crackdown by police and military forces. This event, known as the Caracazo, resulted in numerous deaths attributed to security forces, marking the beginning of documented one-sided violence by the government against civilians by the UCDP. The UCDP has recorded instances of such violence since 1989, highlighting the abuse of power and excessive use of lethal force by police and military forces. Many of the deaths were not only in the context of the protests but were also due to deliberate, excessive police and military actions, including extrajudicial killings. In February 1992, a group of young officers led by Hugo Chávez attempted a coup, which failed after a few hours of fighting, leading to Chávez's imprisonment. Another coup attempt by the same faction occurred in November 1992 but was also unsuccessful, resulting in further clashes between the government and the military faction led by Chávez.
Rise of Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution (1998-2013)
After being pardoned in 1996, Hugo Chávez was elected president in 1998, marking the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution, which was characterized by socialist policies and anti-imperialist rhetoric. Chávez implemented a series of reforms, including nationalizing key industries and expanding social programs, which generated both fervent support and fierce criticism. During Chávez's presidency, there was an increased militarization of the public sphere, with more political power being given to current and former military personnel.
Economic Crisis and Political Unrest Under Nicolás Maduro (2013-Present)
From 2013 onwards, Venezuela's institutional and political crisis intensified, exacerbated by various economic problems that worsened after the death of President Hugo Chávez. Following Chávez’s death, Nicolás Maduro ascended to the presidency through a controversial electoral process. This transition sparked ongoing protests driven by the economic, institutional, and political crises. The government's response was severe, with numerous detentions and accusations of human rights abuses by security forces.
In 2015, the opposition won the National Assembly majority, but their influence was quickly undermined by the government-controlled Supreme Court, which invalidated key legislative actions and stripped the Assembly of its powers, deepening the conflict with the government. Amid continued protests, a Constituent Assembly dominated by government supporters was convened in 2017, which further sidelined the National Assembly. In 2018, the opposition boycotted the presidential elections denouncing them as a fraud. Therefore, the following year, the opposition leader Juan Guaidó refused to recognize Maduro’s re-election and declared himself interim president with the approval of the 2015 National Assembly; numerous countries, such as the United States recognized him. On April 30th, alongside opposition leader Leopoldo López, who was freed from house arrest by military troops, Guaidó called for an uprising to remove Maduro. Besides a few military defectors, the uprising attempt was unsuccessful as the army largely remained loyal to Maduro.
By 2020, Guaidó’s influence had waned due to internal divisions and the loss of momentum that followed his uprising attempt. An opposition boycott of the parliamentary elections resulted in a pro-Maduro victory, further consolidating his control over the institutions. By December 2022, as the opposition continued to defend the validity of the 2015 National Assembly, they ended the interim presidency.
In 2024, Nicolás Maduro was elected president in elections widely denounced as fraudulent. Protests following the announcement of the results in July were violently repressed by security forces and pro-government armed groups known as “colectivos”. The government also activated the so-called “Furia Bolivariana” campaign, targeting political opponents, human rights defenders, and civil society organizations with harassment, arbitrary detentions, and enforced disappearances.
Meanwhile, the long-standing territorial conflict with Guyana over the Esequibo region escalated in 2015 when significant oil reserves were discovered in disputed waters, causing ongoing diplomatic tensions. Throughout these years, the UCDP recorded one-sided violence events by the Venezuelan government against civilians, characterized by abuse of power and lethal repression.
Presence of Colombian Guerrillas (1980s-Present)
Since the 1980s, Colombian guerrillas like the FARC and ELN have used Venezuelan territory for resupply and refuge, seeking sanctuary from the Colombian army's actions. After the 2016 peace process in Colombia, the ELN and FARC dissidents began to establish a more permanent presence, controlling territories near the Colombian borders. The 2019 abandonment of the peace process by FARC Segunda Marquetalia led by Iván Márquez resulted in their refuge in Venezuela, where they established a base in border state Apure. Currently, these guerrillas are not only in Venezuela seeking refuge from Colombian security forces, but also control multimillion-dollar criminal interests, drug trafficking, illegal mining, smuggling, and extortion in several states of the country.
