This dyad belongs to the conflict Myanmar (Burma): Kokang
Summary of conflict Myanmar (Burma): Kokang
The status of the administration of the territory of Kokang has been contested since the late 1950s, when the traditional local ruler briefly was replaced by military administration. Following the dissolution of the Communist Party of Burma, who had controlled the territory for decades, temporary autonomy was granted to the newly formed organisation MNDAA (Kokang Peoples Liberation Army).
The conflict between the Government of Myanmar and the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) de-escalated in intensity in 2025 following a China-mediated ceasefire agreement reached between the two sides in January 2025. The talks formed part of a broader Chinese effort to stabilize northern Shan state and reduce insecurity near the China-Myanmar border, where ongoing conflict had disrupted trade routes and cross-border economic activity. Under the agreement, both sides committed to reducing military operations and limiting further offensives in contested territories. Following the ceasefire, large-scale fighting ceased for the remainder of the year.
Historical background
When Burma achieved independence from United Kingdom in 1948, many parts of the new country remained administered as they had been under colonial times. This included the Shan States in northeastern Burma, where the traditional hereditary rulers, sawbwas, were allowed “full autonomy in internal administration” and the right to secede from the Union after a decade. The Kokang region was traditionally a sub-entity (“Heng”, eventually “Myosa”) to the North Hsenwi sawbwa. However, the Kokang was promoted to sawbwaship after the end of the Second World War as reward for its armed resistance to the Japanese.
The incursion of Chinese Kuomintang (KMT) forces into northern Burma in the 1950s and government measures to dislodge these undermined the autonomy of the Shan sawbwas. In addition to placing the area under military administration, the government set up local defense militias not controlled by the local rulers. In 1958, only the Kokang sawbwa resisted an agreement with the government to dismantle the hereditary system and become incorporated into the Union political structure. After threats of military action, the Kokang leader Yang Kyein Sein also agreed to relinquish his powers in 1959 after demanding guarantees that the Chinese population in northern Burma would not be discriminated against.
In early 1961, the Burmese government launched a large-scale offensive on KMT remnants which also led to fighting with members of the Kokang Defence Army (KDA) . It is unclear whether these clashes constituted a conflict over the status of the Kokang territory or whether KDA was involved because of links with KMT or its involvement in the drug trade. General Jimmy Yang of KDA – also known as the Kokang Resistance Force - eventually participated in the formation of Shan State Army (SSA) in early 1964.
During the government assault, two brothers that had been members of the KDA, Peng Jiasheng and Peng Jiafu, fled to China. There they became connected with the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), who promised to help them in an armed attack on Kokang. On 5 January 1968, the Kokang People’s Liberation Army (KPLA) crossed the border and started engaging Burmese government forces. In August 1968, the KPLA merged with the CPB and the Peng brothers remained heads of the local communist Kokang administration until March 1989.
The mutiny and the ceasefire
In the second half of the 1980s, there was growing discontent within the Communist Party of (CPB). Decreased external support from China created more incentives for local-level commanders to act independently and their interests often clashed with those of the Central Committee. Complaints were made regarding the lack of representation of ethnic minorities in the top leadership, the “human wave” tactics in battle which led to many casualties and the restrictions on the lucrative opium trade. This discontent became increasingly vocal as the CPB were forced to retreat from important border trade posts in 1987 and the failure to link up with the anti-government democracy movement 1988. In early 1989, Chinese officials approached the CPB and tried to pressure the leadership into giving up the armed struggle. After this approach had been rejected, the Kokang forces under Peng Jiasheng openly disowned the CPB leadership on 12 March 1989, and captured the Möng Ko base two days later. The Kokang forces announced the formation of the Myanmar Nationalities Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) with the following manifesto: equal rights and self-determination to all nationalities, establishment of trade centers in Mongko and Kokang, willingness to a ceasefire with the government and to retaliate only when attacked, rejection of the CPB since Burma was moving towards democracy, and Kokang will not demand secession from the union.
The Burmese government reacted quickly on reports that MNDAA had splintered from the CPB. The first contacts were taken already on 20 March 1989 by Lo Hsing-han, with a background as former opium warlord, pro-government militia commander, and member of the KDA in the early 1960s. Three days later, government officials and Peng Jiafu agreed to a temporary ceasefire at a meeting at Kunlong near the Kokang region. As part of the agreement, the Kokang group received 5 million kyat in “development aid” and a free hand in drug trafficking providing it suppressed rebels in the region. Eventually, the day-to-day administration of the “Kokang Special Region No. 1” was run by the Kokang authority with the backing of MNDAA and plans were announced to eliminate poppy farming.
Rejection of the BGF and fighting
One of the provisions of the constitution adopted by Myanmar (Burma) in 2008 was that all armed militias would be integrated into the state hierarchy, and the government wanted MNDAA to be transformed into a Border Guard Force (BGF). This would entail that these forces would be under the command of the Myanmar Army. Many ceasefire groups, including the MNDAA rejected the plan. On 8 August 2009, government forces attempted to raid the house of the MNDAA chairman Peng Jiasheng which led to a five-and-half-hour long standoff between the forces without a shot being fired. Government media claimed that the operation was intended to shut down an illegal arms factory. On the following day, Peng Jiasheng refused to meet with the local government commander for discussions on the BGF-programme and more army troops started to be deployed in the area. On 24 August, government forces raided the MNDAA workshop for repairs of weaponry, but it was not until the morning of 27 August that fighting erupted. After the first attack, fighting quickly escalated as the MNDAA received some support from their allies in the United Wa State Army (UWSA) and some government mortars hit targets in China. Thousands of refugees fled across the border to China during the three days of intense battles when government forces overran the Kokang region. Remaining MNDAA forces left the area and announced that they would continue the struggle through guerrilla warfare. Following the violent spell in August, no other attacks were reported in 2009, and although two bombs in Laogai in February 2010 was blamed on MNDAA the conflict was not active from 2010 to 2013.
Re-emergence of MNDAA
Peng Jiasheng, according to an interview with him in 2014, took contact with the KIO in 2012 and started rebuilding the MNDAA. During the end of 2014, amid escalating fighting between the army and the KIO in Kachin state, the re-emerged MNDAA engaged in fighting with the government forces in north-eastern Shan state by the Kokang region. According to their own statements, the MNDAA fielded some 1000 troops and could "confront the Tamadaw [army of Myanmar] until we reclaim Kokang."
During the end of 2014, amid escalating fighting between the army and the KIO in Kachin state, the re-emerged MNDAA engaged in fighting with the government forces in and around the Kokang region. Fighting escalated when the MNDAA went on the offensive on February 9, 2015, together with the Ta-ang National Liberation Army (TNLA), armed wing of Palaung State Liberation Front (PSLF) and the Arakan Army. Intensive fighting followed, including significant air strikes and artillery bombardment by the army. A state of emergency was declared in Kokang on February 17 and remained until November 17. Following Chinese pressure, the MNDAA announced a unilateral ceasefire on 10 June 2015.
Following the inactive conflict-year 2016, the number of battle-related deaths in the Kokang conflict reached over 25 in 2017, but the intensity of violence was substantially lower than in 2014 and 2015. The majority of fatalities were the result of attacks by the MNDAA on a police station and other buildings in Laukkai town on 6 March 2017. The attacks were followed by fatal clashes between rebels and the government. In 2017, MNDAA acted individually and as part of the "Northern Alliance (Burma)". The "Northern Alliance (Burma)" is a tactical cooperation arrangement including MNDAA, KIO, PSLF (TNLA) and the Arakan Army (AA).
Although occasional fatal events took place after 2017, the conflict has not reach 25 battle-related deaths in a year. The conflict has therefore been coded as terminated in 2017.
