This dyad belongs to the conflict Panama - United States of America
Summary of conflict Panama - United States of America
In 1988, the US began planning a military intervention to oust military leader Manuel Noriega because of growing threats against American interests in Panama. Following a failed coup attempt on 3 October 1989, the US was accused of aiding the rebels and a state of war was declared between Panama and the US. On 20 December 1989 US forces launched operation ‘Just Cause’ in order to oust and capture Noriega, and to ensure the installation of Guillermo Endara (who subsequently became President).
Background to U.S. involvement in Panama
The former Spanish colony Panama gained its independence in 1903 after having been integrated into Colombia since 1821. Later the same year, the new country agreed to let the United States build a canal across the country to link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. The canal, which was completed in 1914, played a significant strategic role for the United States. In the 1970s however, the importance of the canal diminished as the aviation industry developed and at the same time, the nationalist ideas grew stronger in Panama as more and more people resented the US presence in the country. In 1977 two treaties were signed and the US promised to cede the control over the canal to Panama by the year of 2000. On 31 December 1999, control over the canal was officially transferred to Panama.
Since the 1960s the military had de facto ruled Panama, first through Brigadier General Omar Torrijos, who functioned as the country's dictator from 1968 to 1983, and from 1983 to 1989 through Manuel Antonio Noriega. During the 1980s, tension increased between Panama and the US and in 1985, the National Security Adviser to President Reagan told Noriega that the US was concerned over his monopoly of power and his involvement in the drug trade in Colombia. In 1987, Noriega was accused of murdering a political opponent and of electoral fraud. Anti-Noriega demonstrations followed and when the police force attacked the protesters, the US Senate passed a resolution calling for Noriega to step down. Noriegas supporters answered with an attack on the US embassy, which resulted in the withdrawal of economic and military aid from the US to Panama. To compensate for the loss of American aid, Panama instead turned to Cuba, Nicaragua and Libya for military support.
In 1988, the US started to prepare a contingency plan intended to protect US citizens and property, to keep the canal open, and to support any regime that might replace Noriega. One of the strategies was to extensively increase the presence of US troops in Panama, in order to either intimidate military leaders under Noriega and cause them to overthrow him, or to build a force strong enough to invade Panama and remove Noriega from power. A coup attempt took place on 16 March 1988 when a faction of the Panama Defense Force, PDF, attacked the military headquarters in Panama City. The failed coup resulted in a crackdown on the political opposition and an increase in anti-US harassment.
1989: Tension mounts and the United States intervenes
On 7 May 1989, presidential elections were held in Panama and the opposition leader Guillermo Endara defeated de facto leader Manuel Noriegas presidential candidate by a three to one margin. On 10 May 1989, Noriega annulled the election results and sanctioned violence against the opposition. The US reaction was to strengthen its forces in Panama and to change its tactics from trying to convince local forces to overthrow the regime, to instead planning to oust Noriega with military power.
Following a failed coup attempt on 3 October 1989, the Panamanian Parliament, on 15 December, declared that there was a state of war between Panama and the US, since the US was suspected of having aided the rebels. The US had no direct role in the coup attempt, but was well aware of the military factions plan to oust Noriega. The following day, violence erupted when Panamanian forces killed a US soldier at a checkpoint close to the military headquarters of PDF (Panama Defense Force). On 17 December, US President Bush approved the execution of a military intervention to remove Noriega, and on 20 December 1989 US forces launched operation ‘Just Cause’ in order to oust and capture Noriega, and ensure the installation of Endara (who subsequently became President). In addition to the 13 000 US troops that were positioned in Panama before the intervention, another 14 000 troops were brought in during the invasion. PDF forces loyal to Noriega defended the military headquarters for three hours but by 6 p.m. US forces controlled the entire building. New President Endara abolished the PDF on 22 December 1989 and created the new Public Force. As Endara, supported by the US, struggled with the task of building support for his new government, looting and sporadic fighting continued in Panama.
Noriega kept hidden for four days after the intervention, until he on 24 December fled to a Vatican embassy, the Apostolic Nunciature, and sought asylum. Although the Vatican had called the US an occupying power and said that it would be illegal to turn Noriega over to any authority except for the Government of Panama, Noriega was not granted asylum. The American tactics to force the reportedly opera-loving Noriega to leave the embassy included playing loud metal and pop music around the clock. After numerous complaints by the Vatican, the tactic was dropped. According to the Vienna Convention, the diplomatic activity of a diplomatic representation, including requests for asylum, cannot be interfered with by foreign powers. On 3 January 1990, Noriega finally left the Nunciature because of pressure by the Vatican representative in the embassy, who acted as a mediator between USA and Noriega. In addition, Noriega had reportedly begun to fear the Panamanian population. In Panama he could have been charged with murder but in the US he was only charged for drug trafficking and would not face death penalty. In 1992 he was convicted of drug trafficking and money laundering, and 17 years later, in September 2007, he completed his prison sentence. Noreiga remained in US custody during lengthy legal consequences during which US had to decide what to do with Noriega. On 26 April 2010 he was extradited to France where he had been convicted of money laundering in 1999.
