SUMMARY
The three-hundred-year long Spanish rule of Panama ended 1821, but Panama chose subsequently to be integrated into Colombia until it seceded to become an independent republic in 1903. Most of Panama’s organized violence occurred before 1990, mainly during the military dictatorship of Manuel Noriega and the U.S. invasion in 1989-1990. Panama’s current challenges are linked more to organized criminal networks, particularly in connection with the drug trade and regional trafficking routes.
Since 1989, Panama has experienced the intrastate and inter-state categories of organized violence, as defined by UCDP.
Organized Violence in Panama
Panama’s modern experience with organized violence is largely tied to the period of military dictatorship (1968–1989) and the U.S. invasion of Panama in December 1989. The country was ruled for two decades by military leaders, most notably General Manuel Noriega, who consolidated power in the 1980s.
When national elections were held in May 1989, Panamanians voted for the anti-Noriega candidates by wide margins. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election and embarked on a round of repression. On 3 October 1989 a military faction led by Moisés Giroldi launched an unsuccessful coup in an attempt to unseat Noriega; it reached the level of a minor intra-state conflict.
Following the coup, the Panamanian Parliament declared a ‘state of war’ between Panama and the U.S., as the U.S. was suspected of having aided Giroldi’s rebellion. Previously, relations between the countries had deteriorated in the late 1980s to the point that Noriega, a former USA ally, was indicted in the USA on drug-trafficking charges. The immediate trigger of the subsequent inter-state conflict was the killing of an American soldier by the Panamanian army on 16 December 1989.
Four days later, on 20 December, the U.S. launched operation ‘Just Cause’, which relied on overwhelming force and resulted in intense urban combat, particularly in Panama City and Colón. Noriega surrendered on 3 January 1990, after which, the country transitioned to civilian democratic governance by installing the 1989 elected government of President Guillermo Endara.
Pre-1989 Conflicts
Panama’s political history includes multiple military coups and interventions, particularly in the mid-20th century. In 1968, General Omar Torrijos seized power in a coup, establishing a populist military regime that prioritized nationalism and negotiated the historic 1977 Panama Canal Treaties with the United States. These treaties set the stage for Panama to regain full control of the Canal by the end of 1999. Torrijos died in a suspicious plane crash in 1981, and his successor, Manuel Noriega, became de facto ruler. Noriega’s rule was marked by increasing authoritarianism, human rights abuses, and deepening ties with drug trafficking networks. Civilian opposition was repressed through intimidation, surveillance, and political violence.
