SUMMARY
Niger has seen intermittent fighting since 1991, with three different conflicts taking place; one over government and two over the status of two different geographical regions; the one fought over Eastern Niger in focus here. The conflict was pursued by two rebel groups – FDR and FARS – both based among the Toubou population in eastern Niger. Fighting for autonomy for their home region, the rebels launched intermittent attacks on government outposts in 1995 and 1997. Both groups eventually signed ceasefire agreements with the government.
IN DEPTH
Background to the conflict
The Toubou ethnic group is spread over three different African states: Niger, Chad and Libya. In Niger, they constitute a small minority group, inhabiting the remote eastern areas of the country. Living conditions are harsh, and the Toubous have been described as living “in the poorest and most underdeveloped region of one of the poorest countries on earth.” In the early 1990s, the situation deteriorated further, when several thousand Chadian Toubous took refuge in the southern part of the region, following the coup d’état in Chad. This reinforced tensions between the mainly nomadic Fulani ethnic group and settled Toubous and in 1993 and 1994 there were frequent clashes between these groups over grazing rights. Events in neighbouring Chad also fuelled a vast traffic of weapons in the area. All this created a climate of chronic insecurity and frustration and in October 1994 the rebel group FDR (Front démocratique du renouveau) emerged, initially demanding for a federal structure to be set up in Niger. When further expounding its demands in 1995, FDR however called for autonomy for ethnic Toubous in a zone in eastern Niger, stretching from Diado in the northeast and Zinder in the southeast, to the Chadian border. In 1995 the organisation for the first time clashed with Nigerian security forces.
The conflict actors
During the few years that this conflict was active, two separate Toubou movements emerged to fight the central government. As mentioned in the section “Background to the conflict”, the first one was FDR (Front démocratique du renouveau), lead by Issa Lamine. In early 1997, a new rebel group appeared, calling itself FARS (Forces armées révolutionnaires du Sahara). This movement mobilized both Arab and Toubou fighters and was led by Barka Wardougo, for the most part based in Libya. There seems as if the two movements, apart from appearing and, to some extent, fighting at different times, also operated in different geographic localities, FDR in the southeast, mainly around lake Chad, and FARS further north. The goal of their respective armed struggle was the same, however, with both aiming for a far-reaching autonomy for a vast region in eastern Niger.
The government side in the conflict had recently undergone major changes, when the fighting began. In March 1991, the military government, which had ruled the country for 17 years, had announced that the armed forces were to with draw from politics. Subsequently, a transitional government had been appointed, pending democratic elections, which were finally held in 1993. Thus, the conflict erupted during the infant years of Niger’s democracy. The country’s first democratically elected president, Mahamane Ousmane, ruled Niger amidst both economic and political upheaval, until January 1996, when a military coup brought Col. Ibrahim Baré Mainassara to power. He was subsequently elected president, when elections were once again held, in July the same year. There were no major differences in the stance of the different governments towards the rebels.
The armed conflict in eastern Niger has only attracted limited international attention and there have been no confirmed reports of foreign troops involved on either side. There have, however, been allegations of outside involvement, which have been impossible to substantiate. For example, in July 1997 FDR reported that Nigerien and Chadian government troops had performed a joint attack on one of its bases in the Lake Chad region. The Nigerien government vigorously denied this. Also, in 1997, the Nigerian government accused FARS and FDR to have been rallied by former Chadian President and rebel leader Goukouni Oueddei, with the aim of creating a "puppet state" in the Lake Chad region. Also this was denied, this time by the rebels. Aside from these unsubstantiated allegations, there are confirmed reports of material military aid from both China and Libya to the government. The rebel movements lacked outside supporters. Making up for this, FARS in 1997 entered into an alliance with the Touareg rebel group UFRA (see conflict description for the conflict fought over governmental power in Niger) to receive assistance.
Armed conflict and negotiations
The military behaviour on the side of the rebels can be described as classic guerrilla warfare, with a focus on attacks on military posts and camps as well as on military convoys. The government troops to some extent responded by targeting the civilian population, causing thousands of Toubous to flee to Nigeria for safety. There are allegations of massacres of civilian Toubou men, and in 1999, 69 corpses were found in a mass grave close to Boultoungour in the southeast.
As described in the “Background to the conflict” section, the armed struggle was initiated in March 1995 by FDR (Front démocratique du renouveau). There were sporadic clashes throughout the year, with the rebels launching attacks on government outposts and military camps. During subsequent years, until mid-1998, the FDR rebels continued fighting, but on a much lower scale, not crossing the 25 battle-related deaths threshold for inclusion. On 22 August 1998, the movement signed a ceasefire agreement, which effectively ended the conflict between FDR and the government. The FARS (Forces armées révolutionnaires du Sahara) rebels, for their part, were most active during the first year of armed struggle, i.e. in 1997. Its alliance with UFRA had an escalatory effect on the conflict, leading to heavy fighting in September – November of that year.
At the same time as the Toubou armed conflict was fought, there was yet another conflict active in the country (see conflict description for the conflict fought over governmental power in the country). A number of Touareg groups in northern Niger were fighting for the implementation of a federal structure in the entire country and in 1995 an agreement was reached. The Nigerien government attempted to incorporate the FDR into the ongoing peace process, and in March 1996 FDR affirmed its recognition of the 1995 accord. The movement remained within the peace process, which was experiencing large implementation difficulties mainly due to a lack of funds, until July 1997, when the movement withdrew its support for the accord. New negotiations were initiated in the summer of 1998, when the Nigerien government and the FDR met in N’Djamena, Chad, under Chadian auspices. This resulted in a cease-fire accord signed on 22 August 1998. In addition to the ceasefire, the agreement also entailed a general amnesty, integration of FDR fighters into regular armed forces and repatriation
Negotiations with FARS commenced just after the movement had emerged in early 1997. When the rebel organisation took a number of hostages in February, the Nigerien authorities agreed to hold talks with them, discussing their political demands. No major breakthroughs were made at this time, but after a Chadian diplomatic offensive, the FARS agreed to join the above-mentioned ongoing peace process. FARS also signed a ceasefire agreement with the Nigerien regime on 7 June 1997. However, the truce was broken only a few weeks later. By mid November the same year, the Nigerien government, along with the FARS and UFRA, agreed to hold talks with Algerian, French and Burkinabe mediation. The negotiations were successful, leading to the signing of a ceasefire agreement on 29 November 1997. Apart from providing for a ceasefire, the accord also stipulated for an amnesty for rebel fighters, the exchange of prisoners and the integration of rebel fighters into the security forces. The accord was successfully upheld until September 2001, when Nigerien troops clashed with FARS fighters near the Libyan border, killing the FARS leader Chahayi Barkaye. The fighting did not result in the 25 or more fatalities, wherefore the conflict was not recorded as active.
