General information
Part of Conflict: Rwanda: Government
Date of first stated goals of incompatibility: 2000-05-01
Comment on date of first stated goal of incompatibility: An embryo of FDLR was formed in 1998 as the leaders of the ALiR II fighters, fighting alongside the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in their war, felt a need to reorganize themselves. On 1 May 2000 they took the name FDLR and by the end of 2000, the former main Hutu militia ALiR I was fully incorporated into the FDLR.
The FDLR’s main political objective was to change the regime in Rwanda, though not to take over the country as the ALiR had aspired to. It claimed to be formed as an answer to systematic extermination of Hutu and Twa population by RPF.
Date of first use of armed force: 2000-09-30
Comment on date of first use of armed force: On 30 September 2000 FDLR managed to negotiate an agreement that ALIR I was dissolved into the new organisation. at the end of the year the troops merged and adopted a shared headquarters.
First Battle Related Death: 2001-05-20
Comment on First Battle Related Death: FDLR crossed into Rwanda and clashed with the Rwandan army on 20 May in the foothills of the Volcanoes National Park. At least 35 assiliants were killed in the clashes that were the worst for three years.
Date when dyad reached 25 battle releated deaths: 2001-05-20
Comment on date when dyad reached 25 battle related deaths: FDLR crossed into Rwanda and clashed with the Rwandan army on 20 May in the foothills of the Volcanoes National Park. At least 35 assiliants were killed in the clashes that were the worst for three years.
Conflict issues
Conflict Goal Issues: The FDLR (Forces Démocratiques De Libération Du Rwanda) was an armed rebel group formed in 2000 following a reorganization of the rebel group ALIR with the pronounced conflict goal of ousting the incumbent Tutsi-dominated Rwandan regime. However, as opposed to its predecessor, the FDLR officially aspired to achieve its objective through political means. While the group's recruitment base became increasingly diverse during the active years of conflict, the movement was characterized by its ethnic supremacist Hutu Power Ideology and organized the majority of the remaining Rwandan genociders.
The conflict goal issues of the FDLR show a consistent pattern composed of three major issues that were frequently and consistently referred to throughout the group's active years. First, the FDLR demanded entry to the Rwandan political space and to be legally recognized as a legitimate political party. Second, the group demanded the safe return of the group's members, supporters, and Hutu co-ethnic refugees to Rwanda. Third, as previously mentioned, the FDLR has demanded the removal of the incumbent Tutsi regime since the group's inception and has continued to do so throughout the years of conflict.
Congruently, these three conflict goal issues were also the most emphasized issues by the FDLR and can thereby be considered the group's primary conflict goal issues. For instance, a 2007 statement regarding the issue of returning refugees reads, "We are tired of being refugees. What we want is to return home. We will agree on how we will return home. That's the only thing that FDLR will negotiate for.". Furthermore, the recognition of the rebel group as a legitimate political actor and the ousting of the incumbent Rwandan regime has also been highly emphasized and promoted as central for the group to accept a peace agreement and voluntarily disarm.
Conflict Dynamics Issues: The first conflict dynamics issue raised by the FDLR in 2001, and the only coded conflict dynamics issue during the first year of activity, was the group's stated opposition to any MONUC (The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) DDR initiatives in Congo where the group was acting under the umbrella of the Congolese government.
The development of the FDLR's conflict dynamics issues shows a similar pattern to the conflict goal issues, with two issues being consistently referred to throughout the active years of conflict. These issues were the insecurity caused by the collective targeting of Hutu co-ethnics by the Rwandan Government and the structure and timing of a potential disarmament process. The FDLR was opposed to MUNOC's DDR initiative in Congo in 2001 and refused to support the disarmament deal reached between Congo and Rwanda in 2007. However, the FDLR have both in 2005 and 2014 promoted disarmament initiatives that provide sufficient security structures and the opportunity to transform into a legitimate political party in Rwanda.
Besides being the most frequently and consistently raised issues by the FDLR, the group also emphasized the centrality of both collective targeting and DDR issues to its overall cause. For instance, in 2007, the movement's leader, Ignace Murwanashyaka, stated, "We say no to forced disarmament. We will defend ourselves," when asked about the disarmament deal between Congo and Rwanda. Furthermore, the group described itself in 2007 as "Rwandans determined to defend their motherland kept under constant threats of extermination by a tyrannic and barbaric regime.".
Conflict Resolution Issues: The first conflict resolution issue raised by the FDLR was a demand for political negotiations between the group and the government of Rwanda. There is a clear pattern of conflict resolution issues raised by the FLDR, with the absolute majority either calling for negotiations and forming a national dialogue or questioning the structure of these conflict resolution mechanisms. The FDLR frequently and continuously called for negotiations with the Rwandan government and other relevant domestic political actors.
Like the previously discussed issue types, the issues that were most frequently and consistently referred to by the group – i.e., calling for negotiations and national dialogue – were also the most highly emphasized. For example, in an Interview in 2007, the FLDR's leader Murwanasyaka said that "the FDLR would only return to Rwanda in peace after the movement had negotiated conditions for their return at an all-inclusive inter-Rwandan dialogue." which implies the value the group attributed to both issues.
Type of conflict issues: *Conflict Goal Issues: * Civil rights, CPS: Democracy, Oust full executive, Recognition as a political party, Security sector power-sharing
*Conflict Dynamics Issues: * Atrocities and abuses, Collective targeting: ethnic, IFI: International monitoring, Non-refoulement of refugees/IDPs, Return of refugees/IDPs
*Conflict Resolution Issues: * Amnesties, Call for negotiations, DDR issues, National dialogue, Recognition of wrongdoing, Structure of negotiations
Annual information
This section contains annual information systematically collected by the UCDP.
1998
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2000
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2001
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 2054 |
| Best | 2054 |
| Low | 359 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2002
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 83 |
| Best | 83 |
| Low | 63 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2003
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2004
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 22 |
| Best | 18 |
| Low | 18 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2005
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2006
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2007
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2008
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2009
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 2060 |
| Best | 1807 |
| Low | 1703 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2010
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 267 |
| Best | 212 |
| Low | 208 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2011
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 118 |
| Best | 116 |
| Low | 101 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2012
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 99 |
| Best | 83 |
| Low | 59 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2013
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2014
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2015
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 8 |
| Best | 8 |
| Low | 8 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2016
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 136 |
| Best | 136 |
| Low | 136 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2017
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 24 |
| Best | 24 |
| Low | 24 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2018
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 23 |
| Best | 22 |
| Low | 22 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2019
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 60 |
| Best | 60 |
| Low | 60 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2020
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 55 |
| Best | 52 |
| Low | 51 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): Government of DR Congo (Zaire)
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2021
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 4 |
| Best | 4 |
| Low | 4 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2022
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 25 |
| Best | 25 |
| Low | 25 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2023
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 133 |
| Best | 132 |
| Low | 130 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2024
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 44 |
| Best | 44 |
| Low | 37 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
2025
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 84 |
| Best | 60 |
| Low | 12 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Rwanda): n/a
Side B (FDLR-FOCA): n/a
Dyad Archive
This section contains annual information no longer systematically collected by the UCDP.
1998 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2000 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2001 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2001, FDLR including the newly integrated ALiR forces launched a major cross‑border offensive into northwestern Rwanda, often referred to as “Lords Oracle”, when several thousand combatants re‑entered Gisenyi and Ruhengeri from bases in eastern DR Congo. Rwandan army units, reinforced in the northwest, engaged these forces in a series of battles in areas such as Mutura, Cyanzarwe, Giciye, Kinigi, and around the Volcanoes National Park, as well as in districts later known as Bugarura and Bukonya. Using infantry, armoured personnel carriers and helicopter gunships, the RPA reported killing several hundred to more than a thousand FDLR combatants and capturing many others, including officers and brigade‑level commanders, while also sustaining losses among its own troops. Local residents were described as cooperating with government forces by reporting infiltrators and movements of rebel columns, which facilitated ambushes and large‑scale operations against groups advancing from the border.
Following these engagements in May–July, Rwandan authorities stated that they had effectively routed the invading force and that only scattered FDLR elements remained inside Rwanda, hiding in the Virunga and Gishwati forest areas near the DR Congo border. Subsequent months saw continuing mopping‑up operations by the RPA in northwestern districts, during which smaller groups of infiltrators were intercepted, killed or captured in clashes around Kinigi, Ubukonya and other localities. According to Rwandan military and government reporting, these losses left the force often referred to as “ALIR I” largely spent by the end of the year, and the government maintained that it had restored control over the affected areas despite the presence of remaining insurgent pockets along the frontier.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: The Rwandan government rejected demands for negotiation with the armed opposition, accusing the leadership of responsibility for war crimes and genocide. During the negotiations in the DRC conflict, the Rwandan government indeed brought up its concern about insecurity elements along its western border. However, the incompatibility of the Rwandan conflict was not the focus of these negotiations. Also, the Hutu opposition militias were not present at the DRC negotiation table.
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2002 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2002, Rwandan government forces clashed with FDLR in operations conducted on Burundian territory and in eastern DR Congo, rather than inside Rwanda. In northern Burundi’s Rukoko sector, Rwandan troops operated alongside Burundian government forces along the Rukaramu–Mpanda road against rebel positions on the Bubanza–Nyabunyegeri side, in mopping‑up operations.
During the same period, Rwandan forces withdrawing from eastern DR Congo under a bilateral peace accord were engaged by FDLR near Uvira in South Kivu. In at least one reported ambush close to the town, Rwandan military sources stated that Rwandan troops suffered casualties when their column was attacked along routes used for the pull‑back towards the Rwandan border.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: In 2002 different Rwandan exile movements were calling for an Inter-Rwandan-Dialogue but no steps were taken. The only negotiations that took place were between Rwanda and DRC. An agreement was signed on 30 July. In late September and early October Rwanda recalled its soldiers from the DRC under the terms of the agreement; in return the DRC was supposed to help disarm and repatriate groups of rebels, opposed to the Rwandan government, based in the eastern DRC (ALIR and FDLR).
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 2002-12-31
Comment on Termination: No incursions into Rwanda from the DR Congo by FDLR or other Hutu rebels were reported in 2003. The FDLR was believed to have changed their strategy and kept a low military profile to avoid giving Rwanda a reason to return to DR Congo.
Comment on Termination Date: The last clash in 2002 was reported on 1 March in Burundi.
2003 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2003, there were no reported armed clashes between Rwandan government forces and FDLR units, either on Rwandan territory or in neighbouring states, and the dyadic conflict was not active during the year.
Terminated: NO
2004 Dyad Archive
Comment on Yearly Battle Related Deaths: A number of FDLR rebels were killed in retaliation for the April attack inside Rwanda and more FDLR rebels were killed by the army of Burundi in clashes. Several governmental soldiers of Burundi were ambushed and killed in revenge for arrest of eight FDLR guerrillas.
Comment on Active: In 2004, FDLR announced Operation Slingshot, described as an effort to strain relations between Rwanda and the DR Congo. During the year, Rwandan authorities reported attempted incursions by FDLR from eastern DR Congo towards Rwanda, including early April movements that were repulsed by Rwandan forces. In the border area of northern Burundi, Rwandan troops briefly crossed into Burundian territory near Cibitoke while pursuing FDLR elements along a corridor used for movements from the DR Congo towards southern Rwanda, reportedly engaging these forces before withdrawing following Burundian protests.
It remained unclear whether FDLR and the Rwandan army clashed directly in the DR Congo during 2004, although Rwandan officials repeatedly accused the DR Congo government and MONUC of failing to disarm FDLR units and claimed that Rwandan forces carried out limited incursions into eastern DR Congo late in the year.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: The FDLR continued to ask for an inter-Rwandan dialogue, but the government refused to talk to any group connected to the genocide.
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2005 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2006 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2007 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2008 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2008 no clashes occurred between the government of Rwanda and FDLR. As part of the Nairobi communiqué of 2007 the government of DR. Congo had promised to disarm FDLR, by force if necessary. The government of DR. Congo clashed with FDLR repeatedly in the Rutshuru territory of the Nord Kivu Province between April and July. In late August a common enemy, CNDP allegedly supported by the government of Rwanda, stepped up their attacks in the region leading to a renewed alliance between the government of DR. Congo and FDLR. The two now – instead of fighting – conducted joint attacks on the CNDP rebel group.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2009 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2009, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and the FDLR was fought almost entirely on Congolese soil. In January–February, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo launched the joint operation “Umoja Wetu” in North Kivu, with Rwandan and Congolese troops advancing into areas such as Masisi, Rutshuru, Walikale and Lubero to strike FDLR bases and supply routes. Rwandan units operated rapidly and often avoided prolonged engagements as FDLR units withdrew into surrounding hills and forests, while both sides issued conflicting claims about losses. By the time Rwandan forces withdrew at the end of February, FDLR positions around several rear bases and strongholds had been disrupted and many combatants had been pushed into more remote areas.
After Rwanda’s withdrawal, Congolese forces, supported logistically by MONUC, continued large-scale operations against FDLR units in North and South Kivu under Kimia II. FARDC units, sometimes with air and artillery support, recaptured a series of local strongholds and base areas, including FDLR positions in Lubero, Walikale, Rutshuru and Mwenga, and reported killing or capturing a number of FDLR commanders and fighters. FDLR combatants responded with ambushes and attacks on FARDC positions, patrols and police posts in territories such as Masisi, Rutshuru, Lubero, Kabare and Mwenga, while also operating in coalition with Congolese armed groups in some areas. Throughout the year, the dyadic confrontation between Rwanda and FDLR thus continued primarily through Rwanda’s early‑year joint operation and subsequent Congolese offensives closely coordinated with Kigali.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2010 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2010, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR was fought on Congolese soil through Congolese army operations in eastern DR Congo. Under Operation Amani Leo, FARDC, with MONUC support, conducted repeated offensives against FDLR positions and strongholds in Nord- and Sud-Kivu, including in territories such as Walikale, Rutshuru, Lubero, Kalehe and Punia. These operations targeted FDLR camps, patrols and rear bases, leading to a series of engagements in which FARDC reported having overrun FDLR positions, destroyed camps and captured or killed a number of combatants, while also sustaining losses among its own troops.
FDLR units responded with ambushes and attacks on FARDC positions, police posts and patrols, sometimes in cooperation with allied groups, particularly in and around mining areas and along key roads in Walikale and Rutshuru territories. Fighting was also reported in Virunga National Park and in the high plateaus of Kalehe, where FARDC and FDLR forces clashed during Amani Leo operations. Throughout the year, the dyadic conflict between Rwanda and FDLR thus continued to play out indirectly via Congolese and UN military action against FDLR forces based in eastern DR Congo, while no incursions into Rwandan territory by FDLR were reported in 2010.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2011 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2011, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR was fought on Congolese soil. FARDC, sometimes backed by MONUSCO, continued operations against FDLR positions and patrols in North and South Kivu, including in Walungu, Shabunda, Mwenga, Kalehe and Rutshuru territories. In early 2011 Rwanda and DR Congo agreed in Kigali to strengthen cooperation, and between March and August a small joint force of Congolese and Rwandan soldiers was deployed around Kiseguru north of Kiwanja in Rutshuru, conducting limited operations against FDLRelements in the surrounding area. FARDC and MONUSCO also carried out successive “Jua Mupia” phases in parts of Rutshuru and Masisi, reporting the destruction of FDLR camps and the killing or capture of several combatants, including at least one senior commander.
At the same time, FARDC units in South Kivu and Maniema continued to engage FDLR units in more dispersed operations, including sweeps in areas such as Nindja, Bunyakiri and Irhambi‑Katana, and clashes in Kabare, Walungu and Mwenga where FDLR patrols attacked villages or attempted to loot and were pushed back by Congolese forces. Further south and west, the army confronted FDLR groups in Kabambare territory around Saramabila, and reported additional contacts in Maniema and along routes linking Kivu to interior provinces. These operations were primarily handled by FARDC with UN support; the level of direct Rwandan military involvement was limited to small joint deployments on Congolese territory, and no FDLR incursions into Rwanda were reported during the year.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: In 2011 DR. Congo negotiated a preliminary ceasefire agreement with FDLR. Initial contacts were taken in early 2011 and talks led to a preliminary agreement on 17 March. The two FDLR leaders General Gaston Rumuli Iyamuremye and Lieutenant General Sylvestre Mudacumuraopposed the agreement, and the proposal was discarded by the organization in a vote on 29 June. No talks were held between the government of Rwanda and FDLR.
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2012 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2012, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and the FDLR remained centred in eastern DR Congo, where Rwandan special forces operated alongside FARDC under Operation Amani Leo until Rwanda announced their withdrawal at the end of August. During the first part of the year, FARDC, sometimes with Rwandan support, conducted operations against FDLR positions in areas of South Kivu such as Idunga, Lubemba, Lawnda, Mpese, Mpese–Cinene–Muyinga–Katasomwa and surrounding localities, as well as in Uvira, Shabunda, Mwenga and Rutshuru territories. These actions included raids on FDLR camps, clashes around villages where FDLR units attempted to loot or move through, and engagements in which Congolese forces reported killing FDLR combatants, seizing weapons and receiving surrenders from fighters and their families. During the same period, Rwandan forces also struck FDLR leadership targets across the border, including the killing of FDLR chief of general staff Léodomir Mugaragu in January, and several FDLR officers were reported killed in clashes with FARDC in North and South Kivu.
In the latter part of 2012, FDLR’s presence in eastern DR Congo continued to be challenged by FARDC operations, while the movement also mounted cross‑border raids into Rwanda. In North Kivu, Congolese forces engaged FDLR units around localities such as Nyaruhange–Birwa, Kibirizi and Loufu, and reported contacts with FDLR elements in Maniema (Kabambare territory, including Saramabila) under operations that followed on from Amani Leo. Towards the end of the year, FDLR combatants crossed from the Gasizi area in eastern DR Congo into Rubavu district and northern Rwanda, attacking Rwandan army positions in sectors such as Cyanzarwe and Bugeshi and later striking a game warden camp near Musanze; in response, the Rwandan Defence Force repelled the incursions and reported killing and capturing FDLR fighters and recovering weapons and documents linked to the group.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 2012-12-31
Comment on Termination: Since 2009 Rwanda had been fighting FDLR in joint operations with DR. Congo in the border provinces of Nord and Sud Kivu. When a new conflict broke out on Congolese territory in early 2012 Rwanda was accused of supporting the opposition side and thereby the fragile relationship between Rwanda and DR. Congo broke down and Rwanda was forced to withdraw their Special Forces from its Congolese neighbour on 30 August 2012. However in December 2012 FDLR rebels crossed the border from the Democratic Republic of Congo and attacked a game warden camp.
2013 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2014 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2015 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2016 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2016, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR remained centred in eastern DR Congo and was largely fought through Congolese army operations. Following the 2015 Kigali agreement to “urgently” address the FDLR issue, FARDC continued the Sukola II and related operations against FDLR positions in North Kivu, particularly in areas between Walikale and Lubero, in Bwito and Rutshuru territories, and along the Virunga National Park. Congolese forces reported retaking a number of localities previously regarded as FDLR strongholds, including places such as Buleusa and surrounding villages, and carried out patrols and ambushes that resulted in repeated clashes with FDLR units along roads like the Ishasha axis near Katwiguru and around military positions in Kilambo and Katale.
Over the year, FARDC also targeted FDLR’s command structure. Several senior officers were killed or captured, including members of the general staff and intelligence leadership, and Congolese and UN reporting noted that large numbers of FDLR combatants were killed, captured or demobilised under these operations. By late 2016, FDLR’s remaining organised positions were described as concentrated mainly in Rutshuru territory, with clusters around Kiringa, Kahumiro, Kazaroho and in Virunga National Park near sites such as Camp Paris and the Nyiragongo volcano. Rwanda’s role was primarily political and indirect, with DR Congo again treated as the primary battlefield and Rwandan security concerns addressed through Congolese and MONUSCO action against FDLR on Congolese soil.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 2016-12-31
2017 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2017, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR remained largely externalised and was fought at low intensity on Congolese soil, with DR Congo continuing to function as the primary battlefield and secondary warring party. FARDC units clashed with FDLR-FOCA elements, often operating in loose coalition with Nyatura groups, in parts of North Kivu including Rutshuru, Masisi and around Kitshanga. Engagements were reported around army positions and along key roads, such as attacks on FARDC camps near Kitshanga and Katale and on an escorted convoy near Kahunga, during which Congolese soldiers, police and intelligence personnel were killed or wounded and some FDLR fighters were reported killed or captured, with weapons seized.
These confrontations included joint or coordinated FARDC and police responses to FDLR or FDLR–Nyatura raids on localities such as Bwiza and nearby settlements in Rutshuru territory, where FDLR‑linked units sought to loot cattle and supplies and were subsequently pushed back by Congolese forces. Despite these incidents and continued FDLR presence in rural North Kivu, the clashes remained geographically limited and of relatively low intensity compared to earlier periods, and no incursions by FDLR into Rwandan territory were reported during the year.
Terminated: NO
2018 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2018, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR-FOCA remained centred in eastern DR Congo, where the Government of DR Congo (FARDC) continued as a secondary warring party in the conflict between Rwanda and [FDLR-FOCA]. In Rutshuru and Nyiragongo territories, FDLR-FOCA and coalitions with Nyatura attacked or ambushed FARDC positions and convoys in locations such as Mutaho, Machazo, Bishigiro and along roads near Virunga National Park, while Congolese forces launched counter‑attacks on FDLR-FOCA positions and reported regaining control over contested localities. Several of these engagements involved exchanges of fire around FARDC camps or on main roads, with soldiers killed or missing and some civilians hit in crossfire.
FDLR-FOCA also mounted cross‑border raids into Rwanda from North Kivu. In December, suspected FDLR-FOCA elements crossed from DR Congo into Rubavu District and attacked Rwandan army posts in areas such as Cyamabuye, leading to firefights in which Rwandan forces reported casualties on both sides and recovered weapons. Around the same period, Rwandan authorities reported further incursions into the Rubavu border area, while Congolese sources described clashes between FARDC and FDLR-FOCA at the foot of the Mikeno volcano following the arrest of FDLR-FOCA figures in North Kivu. FDLR-FOCA spokesmen publicly acknowledged attacking Rwandan territory, framing these operations as responses to alleged Rwandan activities in eastern DR Congo.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2019 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2019, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR-FOCA remained centred in eastern DR Congo, with FARDC as the primary force engaging FDLR-FOCA units, particularly in Rutshuru and surrounding areas of North Kivu. Congolese troops carried out a series of operations and attacks on FDLR positions and patrols in localities such as Bishigiro, Maroba, Shonyi, Rusekera, Runga and the Rutare mining area in Kalehe, reporting that they had pushed FDLR units out of several villages and killed or captured a number of combatants, including senior officers such as Colonel “Gaspard Africa”. During these operations clashes sometimes occurred near populated areas and along main roads. FDLR-FOCA elements also mounted ambushes and attacks against FARDC positions, convoys and patrols in places like Rugari, Ngerende and Kihonga, and against police in Rutshuru territory, leading to casualties among Congolese security forces.
During the year, Rwanda’s role was expressed both through coordination at the regional level and through direct military involvement inside DR Congo. Regional military chiefs and governments discussed joint plans to “neutralise” FDLR and other armed groups, and Congolese and regional sources reported that Rwandan Defence Force units operated in North and South Kivu with Congolese consent, targeting Rwandan rebel groups. In September, FARDC, supported by RDF, attacked an FDLR-FOCA gathering near Rusinga in Rutshuru and killed FDLR-FOCA commander General Sylvestre Mudacumura along with other combatants. Later in the year, RDF soldiers were reported present in Rutshuru territory and were involved in incidents around Mugomba, where they killed three civilians they had reportedly mistaken for FDLR-FOCA fighters. Overall, the conflict in 2019 thus consisted mainly of FARDC and RDF actions against FDLR-FOCA positions and personnel in eastern DR Congo, combined with continued FDLR-FOCA ambushes and small‑scale attacks on Congolese security forces.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2020 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2020, DR Congo (Zaire) continued to be a secondary warring party in the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR‑FOCA. The FARDC and RDF clashed with FDLR‑FOCA mainly in Rutshuru territory in North Kivu, including around Tongo, Biruma, Ngoroba and along roads on the outskirts of Virunga National Park. In April, Congolese forces launched operations that dislodged FDLR‑FOCA from several long‑standing strongholds near the park, prompting retaliatory attacks and ambushes on FARDC and joint FARDC–RDF convoys. FDLR‑FOCA was also implicated in a major attack near Rumangabo in Virunga National Park, where an elite group ambushed vehicles on the Goma–Rutshuru road and killed a large number of park rangers and accompanying civilians. Throughout the year, FDLR‑FOCA units, led by commanders known as Omega and Gaby Ruhinda, continued to operate in small, mobile groups in and around Virunga, engaging in firefights with Congolese and Rwandan forces and contributing to repeated displacement of civilians from contested localities.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 2020-12-31
2021 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2022 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2022, fighting again centred on the Rutshuru and Nyiragongo areas of North Kivu. RDF and M23 forces clashed repeatedly with FDLR‑FOCA and allied Nyatura CMC units in and around villages such as Rushovu, Mabenga, Kakomero, Rwaza, Machazo, Bushigiro, Maroba, Rusekera, Kisharo and along approaches to Virunga National Park. RDF conducted several cross‑border operations from Rwanda into Congolese territory, including joint actions with M23 and raids aimed at striking FDLR‑FOCA commanders and camps near Kibumba and the Mikeno forest, during which FDLR‑FOCA mounted ambushes on RDF columns and abducted guides were used to locate insurgent positions. At the regional level, heads of state from DR Congo, Burundi, Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda agreed in April to deploy an EAC regional force under Congolese leadership against “negative forces” in eastern DR Congo, explicitly including FDLR and related Rwandan rebel structures, framing continued FARDC and RDF activity against FDLR‑FOCA within a broader multilateral security initiative.
Terminated: NO
2023 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2023, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR‑FOCA was closely intertwined with the Dr Congo - M23 war. In North Kivu’s Rutshuru territory, FDLR‑FOCA and associated Nyatura elements repeatedly ambushed and engaged RDF/M23 columns around Kasali, the “9ième” area, Maroba, Kazaroho and along routes between Tongo and Bwito, targeting convoys, patrols and positions. In neighbouring Masisi, RDF/M23 operations against FDLR‑FOCA and allied groups such as Nyatura Jean‑Marie and APCLS in localities including Magera I and II and Kisingati led to further firefights, with each side at times pushing the other back.
During several of these engagements, civilians were killed or injured in the context of the fighting, houses were burned and livestock and other property were destroyed or looted, particularly around Kasali, Marangara/Runzenze and other contested villages in Bwito and Bashali. Throughout the year, FDLR‑FOCA units continued to operate from positions in and around Virunga National Park and rural Rutshuru–Masisi, using ambushes and joint actions with local militias against RDF/M23, while Rwandan forces carried out targeted operations on FDLR‑FOCA positions and commanders in the same areas.
Terminated: NO
2024 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2024, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR‑FOCA remained closely intertwined with the DR Congo–AFC (former M23) war, and overall intensity decreased compared to 2023, although clashes escalated again in the second half of the year. In North Kivu, FDLR‑FOCA units, sometimes operating alongside VDP/community‑based forces, took part in fighting against RDF and M23 around key positions such as Ndumba hill southwest of Sake and in areas of Tongo, where FDLR‑linked contingents joined Wazalendo attempts to retake localities like Butare from RDF and M23. Over the course of the year, RDF and M23 expanded into zones long associated with FDLR-FOCA and allied groups, including Mashango east of Kitchanga and Marangara east of Tongo.
At the political level, Rwanda and DR Congo negotiated under Angolan mediation a harmonized plan for the neutralization of the FDLR and disengagement of forces, with Rwanda signalling that a withdrawal of several thousand RDF troops from Congolese territory would be contingent on effective action against FDLR structures. This regional diplomatic track, alongside continued front‑line engagements involving FDLR‑FOCA elements on the Wazalendo side and RDF/M23 advances into traditional FDLR rear areas, shaped the lower‑intensity but still active Rwanda–FDLR‑FOCA dyad over the course of 2024.
Terminated: NO
2025 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: In 2025, the conflict between the Government of Rwanda and FDLR-FOCA (Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda, Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda) increased in intensity as clashes erupted in and around Goma town on Congolese territory. In July, the Rwandan military reportedly backed AFC in a military campaign against FDLR in Rutshuru territory, North Kivu province of DR Congo.
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
