SUMMARY
The FDLR (Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda, Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda) is a Hutu-dominated rebel group based mainly in the eastern parts of the DR Congo (Zaire), which violently opposes the government of Rwanda. In its early years news reporting oftentimes referred to the group as simply ex-FAR and/or Interahamwe. Even though the group over the years has transformed, evolved and recruited new troops, FDLR has continued to be the main group that organises the remaining Rwandan genociders keeping its Hutu extremist ideology.
An embryo of FDLR was formed in early 1999 as the leaders over the ALIR II (Armes Pour la Liberation du Rwanda II, Army for the Liberation of Rwanda II), fighters, fighting alongside the government of the DR Congo in their war, felt a need to reorganise themselves. ALIR II had been integrated into the army of President Kabila to be used in the civil conflict, which pitted Kabila’s forces and allies against a variety of rebel groups and the governments of Rwanda and Uganda. Formally FDLR was formed as a political party on 1 May 2000 in Lubumbashi.
After the direct and operational merger of the large numbers of soldiers controlled by ALIR's two branches the FDLR became a group composed of four different elements: ex-FAR soldiers (former soldiers of the Hutu regime in Rwanda), Interahamwe militiamen, young men recruited in the vast refugee camps of the eastern DR Congo (Zaire) and ethnic Hutu citizens of the DR Congo (Zaire) and Tanzania. The majority of the members of the FDLR were likely post-genocide recruits, but significant portions of the group were individuals that were associated with the genocide in Rwanda in 1994.
FDLR, rejected the PALIR/ALIR denomination, since the group did not want to be associated with the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. Instead FDLR placed the limelight on its new political program for a multi-ethnic Rwanda through political dialogue or armed insurgency. The armed wing of FDLR was referred to as FOCA (Forces Combattantes Abacunguzi), and was initially led by General Paul Rwarakabije. The main theater of operations for the FDLR was the eastern DR Congo, mainly the Nord and Sud Kivu regions, but the group has made several forays into mainly western and north-western Rwanda.
FDLR’s most vital supporter has been the Kabila regime of the DR Congo (Zaire), who used the group as an important proxy against Rwanda, which in turn supported those rebel groups in the DR Congo (Zaire) that had been fighting to take government power. The support mainly took the form of the FDLR receiving funding and supplies from Kinshasa. This support was however officially ended when the FDLR was declared unwanted by the government of the DR Congo in 2002, severely weakening the group. Officers in the Nord and Sud Kivu regions have however continued to locally support different FDLR branches. In 2005 the government of the DR Congo also turned against the FDLR, launching armed offensives against the group so as to destroy it and mitigate any Rwandan pretenses for military action inside the DR Congo (Zaire). In 2009 the Rwandan and Congolese governments launched a joint offensive against FDLR, this offensive have been followed by both periods of covert support and periods of open conflict with the Congolese army. FDLR was also supported by different Congolese tribal Mayi Mayi self-defence groups, receiving weapons from them and also at times joining them in operations against common enemies. Alliances between the FDLR and the Mayi Mayi groups have however tended to shift between allegiance and conflict. After June 2012, FDLRs main allies has been different Nyatura factions.
In 1999 the President of FDLR was Col. Aloys Ntiwirigabo, in December 2001 he was replaced by Dr Ignace Murwanashyaka. In November 2009, Murwanashyaka was detained in Germany for war-crimes and later died in April 2019. Gen. Gaston Iyamuremye (aka Gaston Rumuli or Victor Byiringiro) took over the leadership.
The political wing has, as has the military contingent of the FDLR, suffered from factionalism, seeing some members break off into Rastas, FDLR-RUD, FDLR-Soki, FDLR-Mandevu and CNRD. The military wing of FDLR, FOCA, was led by General Paul Rwarakabije until he defected to Rwanda in 2003. General Sylvestre Mudacumura replaced Rwarakabije but he was assassinated in September 2019. Mudacumura was replaced by General Pacifique Ntawunguka alias Omega. Another high-ranking military commander of the FDLR was General Augustin Bizimungu, who had previously been the Commander-in-Chief of the predecessor to FDLR, PALIR. FDLR has been involved in the intrastate, non-state and one-sided categories of UCDP organised violence.
Nduma Defense of Congo (NDC) was the political branch of the Mayi Mayi Sheka formed in 2008 by Ntabo Ntaberi alias Sheka a warlord involved in the mining business. The stated goal of the group included demands for greater development and better working conditions for artisanal miners. However in many ways the group has fulfilled most of the general prejudice people have of Congolese rebel groups a small group, involved in the mining business, frequently changing alliances, forcibly recruiting children and the most well-known attack was when the group from 30 July to 2 August, 2010, raped hundreds of civilians in Walikale to punish them for collaborating with Congolese Government forces.
NDC was mainly based in Walikale but also carried out attacks in the Lubero and Masisi territories of the Nord Kivu Province. From the outset the group mainly cooperated with FDLR but after killing Montana battalion Commander Evariste Karenguhera on 20 November 2011 NDC became allied to M23 and Ntaganda. Sheka has also cooperated with parts of the government army when having joint mining interests. NDC has also recieved support from Rwanda. The NDC fighters were mainly from the Nyanga ethnic group. NDC consisted of 150-180 men, mainly army deserters and youths. In 2014 NDC-R splintered from the Sheka-led NDC accusing Sheka of embezzlement. After loosing his second in command and a large part of his group the NDC led by Sheka gradually lost their area of influence.
The leader of NDC, Ntabo Ntaberi (Sheka) surrendered to MONUSCO on 26 July 2017. In November 2020 he was sentenced to life in Prison for seven countrs of war-crimes. After Sheka's surrender Mandaima assumed the leadership of the group.
NDC has been involved in the non-state and one-sided categories of UCDP organised violence.
The Forces of Nsengiyumva were a short-lived, armed group active in North Kivu province in 2010 and early 2011. Formed by Lieutenant Colonel Emmanuel Nsengiyumva, a former officer in the Congolese army (FARDC) and ex-member of the CNDP (Congrès national pour la défense du peuple), the group emerged as part of a broader fragmentation of military and rebel structures following the 2009 Goma peace agreements. Nsengiyumva defected from the FARDC in early 2010 and led a contingent of fighters that joined a temporary coalition with the Nduma Defense of Congo (NDC) and the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR-FOCA) during the infamous 2010 Walikale mass rapes and attacks.
The Forces of Nsengiyumva were based in Misao, within Walikale territory, North Kivu province. Their operations were concentrated along the Kibua–Mpofi axis, a mineral-rich zone.
Around a dozen combatants were part of the July–August 2010 attacks.
The Forces of Nsengiyumva were equipped with AK-47 rifles, light machine guns (LMGs), rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs), and 60mm and 82mm mortars
Lieutenant Colonel Emmanuel Nsengiyumva, formerly of the CNDP and FARDC, led the group. He was reportedly a relative of Lt. Col. Yusuf Mboneza, an ex-CNDP officer commanding the 212th FARDC Brigade in Walikale during the 2010 attacks. Nsengiyumva’s leadership ended with his assassination on 27 February 2011 in Rutshuru. Two other commanders mentioned in connection to the group were Major “Bosco” who served as the operations officer, assisted by another commander known as “Jean-Marie.”
The group temporarily allied with Mayi-Mayi Sheka’s NDC and the FDLR-FOCA during the coordinated attacks on civilians in Walikale territory from 30 July to 2 August 2010.
