This dyad belongs to the conflict Burkina Faso - Mali
Summary of conflict Burkina Faso - Mali
The territorial conflict between Burkina Faso and Mali over parts of its border region (known as the Agacher strip, or the Oudalan area) had its roots in the arbitrary delineation of national borders in colonial times. The zone of contention stretched 100 miles, from Dionouga in the west, to the border with Niger in the east. Its location near the Beli River – situated north of Djibo in Upper Volta and south of Hombouri of Mali – secured for parts of the area a permanent supply of water, a strategic commodity for two land-locked countries in a dry region. After decades of unsuccessful attempts to resolve the issue peacefully, punctuated by small-scale clashes in 1974, out-right fighting erupted in December 1985. The armed conflict was brief, however, and limited to a handful of military engagements, before a cessation of hostilities agreement came into effect on 31 December. The conflict issue could finally be resolved in 1986 through a ruling by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague, whereby the disputed area was divided into two parts, roughly equal in size.
Colonial legacy
Current-day Burkina Faso located in the African Sahel region was colonised by France in the late 19th century, and in 1919 Upper Volta, Haute-Volta in French, was created. In 1932, the colony was abolished and its territory divided between other French colonies in the area, namely Niger, Côte d’Ivoire, and Mali (known as French Sudan at the time). In 1947 the Upper Volta colony was reconstituted, creating the conditions for future disputes over the country borders’ exact delimitation. Incompatible interpretations of where the border should be drawn were on several occasions resolved peacefully, such as through the successful border delimitation processes with Ghana and Niger, completed in 1981 and 1987, respectively. However, the country’s various reconstitutions also formed the basis of the contestation over territory with its neighbor Mali, which eventually led to armed conflict. The fact that Upper Volta was reconstituted on more than one occasion in colonial times is also said to explain why the position of its borders became so important.
Territorial conflict with Mali: the 1985 “Christmas War”
National borders arbitrarily established in colonial times have ever since their inception been the source of contention in many parts of Africa, so also in Upper Volta (renamed Burkina Faso in 1984). When the disagreement over part of the Upper Volta – Mali border ostensibly first led to violent confrontation in late 1974, the border delineation issue had already been the subject of discussion for many years, ever since the country’s 1960 independence. The dispute concerned the Agacher strip, also referred to as the Oudalan area, a 100-mile stretch of the 700-mile long border between the two countries. Its location near the Beli River – situated north of Djibo in Upper Volta and south of Hombouri of Mali – secured for parts of the area a permanent supply of water, a strategic commodity for two land-locked countries in a dry region. The area’s grazing lands were therefore vital to the pastoral nomads, making up most of the contested territory’s 60 000 inhabitants. Further on, reports emerging in the 1970s claimed that deposits of oil, minerals and natural gas had been discovered in the area. At a time of drought and global economic crisis, this prospect motivated what were two of the world’s poorest nations to control the territory.
A joint Upper Volta – Mali commission was established in September 1974, and brought high-level ministers from both countries together in Bobo Dioulasso (Upper Volta) to discuss the demarcation of the disputed border. In the view of the delegation representing Upper Volta, the 1947 reconstitution of the country based on its 1932 frontiers meant that the territory fell within its own borders, in accordance with the OAU (Organisation of African Unity, later the African Union, AU) Charter position to respect colonial borders, though imperfect. While accepting the principle, Mali based its territorial claim on the country’s general decree of 1935, putting the area in Mali, and rejected Upper Volta’s claim as being based on an out-of-date map. Although both sides claimed they would make efforts to reach an agreement on the matter, the meeting marked a turn for the worse in relations between the countries.
Minor incidents in the border area led to further talks, this time between the heads of state of both countries, but without any substantive outcome. Directly following the meeting, in December 1974, Malian forces established a military presence in the disputed territory, leading Upper Volta to believe that the talks had only been a diversionary tactic. On 14 December the conflict escalated dramatically when a lorry carrying humanitarian relief items, and its army escort of two patrol cars, were ambushed by Malian soldiers, resulting in an exchange of fire. Upper Volta sought to retaliate – this in spite of its army being heavily outnumbered by its Malian counterpart – and further clashes ensued that month, in which one voltaic sergeant was reported to have been killed.
In addition to being more numerous than their Upper Volta counterpart, the Malian forces were also significantly better equipped, strengthened by a French shipment of light arms as late as on 10 December that year. This caused upset and demonstrations in Ouagadougou, which had received no such assistance despite its close links to France. Anti-French sentiment in Upper Volta was also motivated by the fact that the whole conflict issue was felt to be the fault of France. As the former colonial power that drew the nation’s borders, they were expecting France to come out strongly in defence of their own demarcation maps.
In spite of a 26 December 1974 truce bringing violent confrontation between Upper Volta and Mali to a temporary halt, the hostilities between the two countries continued by other means, such as through inflammatory broadcasting. Tensions peaked in January 1975 when Mali’s head of state Colonel Moussa Traoré alleged that nationals of Mali had been the victims of “veritable manhunts” and “pogroms” in Upper Volta, and claimed that there was proof of the massacring of hundreds of Malians. The OAU requested a Red Cross sub-committee to investigate the allegations, but no conclusive evidence was found to corroborate the claims of atrocities. The occupation of the border area continued in an uneasy stand-off.
Additional violent incidents, resulting in two deaths, were reported in June 1975 before a peace agreement was signed in Togo on 18 June. By signing onto the agreement, both countries accepted the formation by the mediation commission of a technical commission to define the border and determine the nationality of several villages in the disputed area. A permanent peace agreement to end the border dispute was on 11 July 1975 signed by the presidents of Upper Volta and Mali in Conakry, mediated by Guinean President Sékou Touré. Observers noted, however, that the main conflict issues had not been resolved, and would require the input of the established technical committee.
The parties continued to pursue the resolution of the dispute through peaceful, diplomatic means. However, the conflict remained unresolved. A decision was reached through negotiations that the parties would submit their border dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague, which they did on 20 October 1983. The formal claims were, however, submitted as late as October 1985. Both parties agreed to comply with the eventual decision. The court proceedings, however, had still not yielded a final decision and the case was still pending when the conflict again flared up in late 1985. Tension had been building up between the countries in the preceding months. The Malian head of the francophone Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS; Communauté économique des États de l’Afrique de l’Ouest, CEAO) had been expelled from Burkina Faso (country name changed from Upper Volta in 1984) after criticising Burkina Faso’s leader at the time, Captain Thomas Sankara. Sankara, in turn, threatened to use the regional forum to prosecute former CEAO officials for embezzlement.
In December 1985, Burkina Faso moved into four contested villages in the border area, purportedly to conduct a national census. The presence sparked a wave of protests, and Burkinabè forces were deployed to protect the census workers. Mali, considering the affected villages to be situated in their own territory, protested against the breach of its sovereignty, and asked the CEAO’s military and security agency ANAD (Accord de Non-agression et d’Assistance en Matière de Défence; Non-Aggression and Defense Aid Agreement), to intercede, compelling Burkina to order a withdrawal. Mali, however, was not satisfied and immediately prepared a military response. From 20 December, Mali had deployed along the border, and began conducting reconnaissance missions. On 25 December Malian forces launched several ground and air attacks against Burkinabè police stations and border posts, stating that they had launched a “vast offensive” against the Burkinabè “occupation” over their long-standing border dispute. Burkina Faso forces rushed to mobilise their response. The five-day border conflict that ensued was limited to a handful of military engagements, in which the most credible reports claim 59 people were killed. Militarily weaker, the Burkinabè side suffered a majority of the casualties.
Attempts were made on behalf of various actors to bring the conflict to a halt, and on 30 December 1985 Malian radio reported that the conflict parties had accepted an ANAD-mediated ceasefire, which was officially signed and came into effect on 31 December. The ANAD Ministerial Council summit also mandated the Observer Commission, set up and deployed to monitor the withdrawal of troops from the contested area. The ICJ is also thought to have played a central role in compelling the parties to accept a cessation of hostilities, reaching an interim ruling on 10 January 1986 and forcefully demanding a troop withdrawal until a final status decision could be reached by the court. Later the same month, the influential president of Côte d’Ivoire, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, brought the parties together in Yamoussoukro. In an agreement between Burkina and Mali, announced in an 18 January ANAD communiqué, the parties agreed not to do anything to “aggravate or extend the dispute”, and to “to respect the ceasefire declared by agreement between the two heads of state on December 31st 1985”.
Relations between the states continued to normalize, and on 27 February a prisoner exchange took place in Bamako. Marking further improved relations, the countries decided to restore diplomatic relations and exchange ambassadors six months after the conflict. In the meantime, the ICJ continued its hearings and deliberations on the final resolution of the territorial dispute. On 22 December 1986, the ICJ announced its final and unanimous ruling, dividing the disputed area into two parts, roughly equal in size. The 40 000-word judgement partially recognized the claims of both countries, awarding Burkina Faso sovereignty over the Beli district in the east, while the Malian claims of the western portions were recognized. Both parties accepted the ruling as binding, and were said to be satisfied with the outcome. The countries announced that the territory was henceforth to be treated as a “mutual development zone”.
The parties continued to meet following the final ruling of the ICJ, in order to make progress on the border delimitation process. In 1988, for example, the countries adopted a treaty plan and a protocol agreement on the definition of the joint border. In spite of certain tensions and contentious issues remaining, the conflict was essentially resolved. It is not, however, impossible that the issue will re-emerge in the future. Developments in relations between Burkina Faso and neighboring country Niger indicate the tendency of such border conflicts to re-emerge. In spite of the completion of a successful border delimitation process in 1987, tension in the border area caused hostilities as late as in 2007, and local officials from both countries agreed to request the arbitration of the ICJ in the dispute.
