SUMMARY
Since 1989, the use of one-sided violence by the Government of Iraq has primarily taken place within the context of the different inter- and intrastate conflicts the country has experienced, with the government under Saddam Hussein indiscriminately targeting civilians with ideational characteristics of the enemies they were facing. The characteristics of the government's use of one-sided violence changed when the Saddam Hussein administration was ousted following the interstate conflict against the USA, the UK and Australia in 2003. Whilst violence against civilians still often targets specific communities, such as Shiite militias targeting Sunni civilians when fighting Sunni armed groups, it has increasingly become aimed at activists that oppose the influence of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) militias in Iraqi politics.
In 1968, the Ba’ath party took control over the Iraqi government and proclaimed a one-party state in which Saddam Hussein acceded to become the leader in 1979. Under the Hussein administration, the government became increasingly concerned with suppressing opposition and using one-sided violence to protect its position. Apart from expanding the security apparatus, the government employed one-sided violence against the civilian population in areas of opposition or even suspected opposition. These policies were evident in particular in the Kurd-populated areas in northern Iraq, and in areas along the border with Iran. In these areas, the government initiated large-scale campaigns consisting of massacres, deliberate bombings, and artillery bombardment of refugee camps, and on some occasions even using chemicals against the civilian population. Throughout the county, other types of one-sided violence were also common. Most opposition figures were arrested and brought into government custody but there were also reports of public killings as well as several occasions when government forces opened fire on anti-government demonstrations. Killings in public were also reported by the Iraqi forces during the occupation of Kuwait in the interstate conflict between the two countries in 1990-91. The Government of Iraq first became active as a one-sided actor in UCDP data in 1990, when the one-sided violence resulted in over 25 civilian deaths. The threshold was reached on 9 August that year when Iraqi forces shot three civilians in Kuwait City which at the time was under Iraqi occupation. This brought the total of one-sided victims for the year to more than 25 deaths, even though there were other reports of several thousand unclear deaths earlier in 1990.
After the new Iraqi government was established in 2003-04 following the defeat of Iraq in the interstate conflict against the USA, the UK and Australia, other types of one-sided violence were reported. As part of building a new security apparatus, the security forces of the new government initially often consisted of joint patrols of newly recruited Iraqis and foreigners from the supporting multinational coalition. These forces targeted civilians on several occasions claiming concerns about the increasing violence in Iraq but also in retaliation for attacks on their colleagues. Furthermore, it was reported that parts of the Iraqi security apparatus participated in attacks on minorities, in particular Sunni Muslims, as sectarian violence increased in the country. It was often claimed that the Iraqi police or the interior ministry forces had been staffed by members of militant movements and that the central political leadership had limited control over the use of one-sided violence by its troops. This issue increased further after the security forces collapsed during the Islamic State (IS) offensive in 2014, as the security forces thereafter were rebuilt through the mobilization of thousands of primarily Shiite militias, forming the PMF as a branch of Iraqi security forces. The PMF has since been responsible for a significant portion of the one-sided violence committed by the Iraqi government.
Violence in Iraq escalated drastically in 2014-2017 (for more information see the conflict Iraq: Government) and during that time, the Iraqi security forces and allied militias, mainly the PMF, also carried out a number of attacks against civilians. The security forces and PMF militias sometimes claimed that they were targeting members of IS, but later investigations by human rights organizations showed that they were civilians. There have also been cases of revenge killings following the capture of previously IS-held territory.
In October 2019, mass protests broke out across southern Iraq against economic mismanagement and chronic corruption. A key concern was how state positions and functions were divided up between political parties, many either originating from within the PMF or operating their own militias under the banner of the PMF. The government under PM Adil Abdul-Mahdi responded with widespread violent suppression of the originally mostly peaceful demonstrations, which however thereafter became increasingly violent as protesters sought to defend themselves from the security forces. The Mahdi government was forced to resign as violence escalated, and a caretaker government took over. Hundreds had been killed, mostly in events classified as "violence in popular protests", as violent resistance from protestors were common. The government to a large degree employed the PMF for its most violent attacks, and these groups have thereafter continued to target demonstrations and activists that demand that the perpetrators of violence against the protest movement be held accountable. The new government have proven incapable of reigning in the PMF, which has widely led to the Iraqi state suffering decreased legitimacy in the eyes of many Iraqi's.
The main coalition of political parties tied to the PMF suffered significant electoral defeats in the October 2021 parliamentary elections, leading them to reject the outcome of the vote. Tensions between the government and the largest parliamentary block on the one side, and the PMF on the other has since increased significantly. The threat of increasing violence against activists opposing PMF influence has thus also increased.
