SUMMARY
In addition to engaging with the AFL (Armed Forces of Liberia) in intrastate armed conflict the INPFL (Independent National Front of Liberia), during its conflict with the Liberian government, engaged in one-sided violence against civilians. The group also committed widespread atrocities of other sorts, such as rape, looting, and the burning of villages. The Liberian civil conflicts, in general, were characterized by excessive brutality and bizarre events, such as instances of cannibalism, cross-dressing, and the use of black magic (known as juju magic) by combatants from the different warring parties.
The established reasons for the INPFL's violence against civilians stem from a variety of factors, and no one explanation can capture the motives of the entirety of the INPFL's combatants. Explanations can also be found both on a group and individual level of analysis. The general pattern of the one-sided violence perpetrated by INPFL is closely linked to NPFL’s use of one-sided violence. INPFL was formed when a leadership dispute within NPFL, between Charles Taylor and Prince Johnson, became too infected, hence prompting the splinter group INPFL, under the leadership of Johnson, to be formed. Since both groups stem from the same background and strived towards the same goal, the ousting of incumbent president Samuel Doe, they used similar tactics in target selection and means of mobilization. After the split between NPLF and INPFL over leadership issues both the groups, albeit fighting each other, still shared a common goal (for further information see the INPFL – NPFL conflict).
In general one-sided violence against civilians took on an ethnic dimension (with exceptions however), with NPFL leader Charles Taylor playing the ethnic card from the outset of the conflict. The Doe regime, which the NPFL opposed, had systematically promoted the Krahn and Mandingo ethnic groups (although not all members of these group benefited in any way from this), and in turn cracked down on the Gio and Mano groups, whose loyalty towards the regime Doe questioned for historical reasons. This ethnic dimension can however not account for the full scope of one-side violence carried out by INPFL. A particular greed motive is also discernable, with men and women joining INPFL and killing civilians in order to acquire valuable goods through looting. Force was an effective way of securing access to valuable resources such as diamonds, ore, and timber. This greed motive combined with the ethnic dimension to create the notorious INPFL roadblocks, primarily around Monrovia, where cadres would stop, loot, and sometimes kill Krahn and Mandingos, people with any lootable goods, or just random civilians.
Other motives for violence against civilians can be found on the individual level. Whilst the two motives mentioned above -playing the ethnic card to win support and economic motivations- can be viewed as both personal and group goals, some analysts view INPFL violence against civilians as a way of settling personal grudges with perceived enemies or wrong-doers, or the simple pursuit of personal power, in an anarchical environment of opportunity.
Among INPFL cadres drinking and drug abuse were common, which of course also had implications for violence against civilians. INPFL commanders would often encourage or force their cadres to use marijuana, amphetamines or alcohol, so as to diminish fear and psychological obstacles to warfare and killing. It is highly likely that such substance abuse contributed to the sometimes senseless violence carried out by the combatants of the Liberian civil conflict.
A bulk of the deaths caused by INPFL can be attributed to summary executions, it was reported that INPFL summarily executed scores of civilian Krahn’s as they were to be evacuated from Monrovia.
INPFL first became active as a one-sided actor in UCDP data in 1990, when the one-sided violence resulted in more than 25 civilian deaths. The threshold was reached in August of that year when the group carried out several attacks against civilians in Montserrado Country and Grand Gedeh County.
