SUMMARY
The conflict between Mayi Mayi Mazembe and NDC-R was mainly fought in the Nord Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire). The Nord Kivu province is situated in the eastern parts of the country bordering Rwanda and Uganda. Much of the land in the Nord Kivu province is fertile and it is more densely populated than other parts of the country. The Nord Kivu province is and has for centuries been inhabited by a broad range of different communities: Hunde, Nande, Nyanga, Tembo, Kano, Twa, Pere and Hutu and Tutsi the latter two also known as Banyarwanda. Before colonization these communities were governed differently in different chiefdoms. Under the colonial administration, these chieftaincies were absorbed by the new power. Some areas were re-drawn into new administrative units, sectors, in some cases importing new chiefs. The Belgians also made a distinction between the indigenous/autochthonous tribes of the area, who were entitled to holding land and the foreigners; oftentimes being those of Rwandan decent (Hutu and Tutsi), who were not entitled to holding land. Simultaneously all land belonged to the colonial power and they could expropriate customary land to lease or sell it to plantation-owners.
During the colonial rule, the plantation-owners needed labor on their farms. To meet this demand labor workers were recruited in neighboring Rwanda. In some areas of the Nord Kivu province, this wave of immigration changed the ethnic balance of the area. In total it is believed that between 150 000 and 300 000 Hutu and Tutsi immigrants moved to Nord Kivu during the colonial period. After independence these shifts in balance has been one of the roots to conflicts in the area. While the indigenous communities have kept the customary power and the right over land, the Hutu and Tutsi have been more numerous and therefore a threat to the indigenous/autochthonous power in a democratic system. Different laws regulating citizenship have granted or ripped the Hutu and Tutsi communities of their rights aggravating the situation. Under the Mobutu Zairianisation process, the big plantations were nationalized and then granted to close allies of president Mobutu according to his patronage system of ruling the country. Hutu and Tutsi elite managed to buy land during this period and consequently managed to gain economic power.
The Nord Kivu province has also been one of the main battle-scenes of the DR Congo (Zaire): Government, Uganda: Government and Rwanda: Government conflicts. These conflicts have continued to form a web of allies and enmities in the region. A new turn of local struggles in the Nord Kivu province started after the Rwandan rebel group FDLR was weakened in 2017 by the government of DR Congo/MONUSCO joint operations against the group, by the splinter group CNRD as well as clashes with the Mai-Mai Mazembe, NDC-R temporary coalition.
The conflict between Mayi Mayi Mazembe and NDC-R emerged in this context. Mayi Mayi Mazembe was predominantly Nande, while the NDC-R consisted mainly of Nyanga fighters. As FDLR declined in strength, the former allies fell out following a dispute in May 2017 between the Mayi Mayi Mazembe leader Kitete and “General” Guidon Shimiray Mwissa, the leader of NDC-R. According to an OHCHR report the conflict between the former allies started to emerge as early as April 2016 due to financial disagreements between commanders making the area west of Butembo a new battle-ground for mineral control. The conflict between the two groups led to dozens of clashes in two main areas of Lubero in 2017, around Kashugo and around Miriki. The clashes favored NDC-R who extended their area of influence.
From April 2017 Mayi Mayi Mazembe and NDC-R clashed over in Kashugo and Kagheri causing the flight of almost 70% of the population. From June 2017 NDC-R managed to control and tax the area until August 2018, when the government of DR Congo launched an operation against NDC-R and captured their strongholds around Kashugo. In July 2017 Mayi Mayi Mazembe temporarily lost control over the Miriki area and was forced to move their headquarters from Kyambuli near Miriki to Butolera. In 2018 NDC-R clashed with Mayi Mayi Mazembe over Bitakongo. On 14 September, NDC-R occupied the Bitakongo village.
The non-state conflict between Mayi Mayi Mazembe and NDC-R was first included in UCDP data in 2017. Clashes in Vukohwa village in June and Kashugo and Kagheri in July 2017 resulted in over 25 battle-related deaths.
