SUMMARY
In May 1998 a border dispute broke out between Eritrea and Ethiopia when Eritrean troops entered an area under Ethiopian control. The two states had seen a few years of deteriorating relations and in the current climate of distrust and tension they failed to resolve the dispute. Instead it became the trigger of an all-out conventional war that killed tens of thousands between 1998 and 2000. Despite the signing of an accord in 2000 the two states failed to agree on the demarcation of the border for several years and the relationship between them remains very tense.
The parties signed a peace treaty in September 2018, after Ethiopia announced it was willing to abide by a 2002 boundary commission arbitration that it had previously rejected.
IN DEPTH
Background to the conflict
For a description of the events leading up to Eritreas independence from Ethiopia (in 1991 de facto and in 1993 de jure), see the Ethiopia and Ethiopia (Eritrea) conflict descriptions.
During the first years after Eritreas independence, the relationship between the two neighbouring countries appeared to be relatively good and uncomplicated. Ethiopias Prime Minister Meles Zenawi and Eritreas president Isaias Afwerki originate from the same Tigrinya-speaking area that straddles the countries and the two had, despite occasional disputes, been allies in the struggle against the Mengistu regime (see the Ethiopia and Ethiopia (Eritrea) sections in the database). However, a few years after independence, cracks in the relationship began to appear. The two countries pursued divergent economic policies and in 1997 Eritrea introduced its own currency. This made relations sour, as Ethiopia demanded that all transactions between the states should be carried out in hard currency. Eritrea retaliated by expelling Ethiopian officials from its ports, whereby Ethiopia diverted all trade to Djibouti. Further putting a strain on relations between the two states was the fact that their common border was never fully demarcated when Eritrea gained independence. In May 1998, a border dispute broke out when Eritrean troops entered an area previously under Ethiopian control. In the current climate of distrust and tension, the two states failed to resolve the dispute, and it was allowed to escalate to an all out conventional war.
First World War-type of fighting kills tens of thousands
There were three main fronts in the war: at Badme in the west, Zela Ambessa-Egala in the central area and Burrie in the east. The fighting occurred in fits and starts. After the initial string of border clashes, Eritrean aircraft bombardment and subsequent Ethiopian retaliation followed. When the shooting died down in late June, Eritrea held more ground, but Ethiopia had the moral upper hand, as the international perception was that Eritrea had initiated the war. For some months a tense calm reigned along the border, a calm that both sides used to substantially build up their military capabilities, rearming for hundreds of millions of dollars. In February 1999, the uneasy calm was broken as Ethiopia launched a successful offensive, retaking Badme, which they had lost to Eritrea the previous year. A further Ethiopian offensive was launched in April 2000, in which Eritrea lost all territory it had managed to gain in 1998. Moreover, the offensive was successful in occupying large parts of Eritrean territory.
The war proved to be very bloody, with tens of thousands of soldiers dying. Eye witnesses have described virtual suicidal attempts by the Ethiopian forces to break the Eritrean line by running across mined no-mans land through constant artillery and machine gun fire in scenes reminiscing of the First World War. Parallel to the fighting, both states embarked on extensive propaganda campaigns, mostly focusing on prosecution of their nationals. Indeed, in June 1998, Ethiopia had begun a process of expelling around 70 000 Eritreans from the country, claiming that they posed a threat to the national security. Ethiopia, for their part, also voiced complaints, claiming that Eritrea was expelling their nationals.
OAU-brokered negotiations lead to the signing of a peace agreement
Negotiations were difficult to initiate, since Ethiopia at first refused to commence talks until Eritrean forces had been withdrawn from areas they had occupied. Eritrea refused, claiming that these areas were in fact Eritrean, thus creating a deadlock. In June 1998 OAU (Organisation of African Unity) established a mediation committee, which presented settlement proposals based on suggestions by Rwanda and the USA. However, even though both states in mid-1999 signed two OAU-brokered documents, known as the Framework Agreement and the Modalities, they failed to agree on a third document, the Technical Arrangements, which set out the details of how to implement the first two agreements whereby the fighting continued.
The following year, indirect proximity talks were held in Algiers from 29 April to 5 May. Technical arrangements, intended to lead to the implementation of previously accepted plans for a peaceful settlement, were discussed, but the negotiations broke down when agreement could not be reached on whether or not a ceasefire should precede the signing of a peace accord. However, after Ethiopias highly successful offensive, the Eritrean government announced that it would withdraw its troops from the disputed areas, and new peace talks were held in Algiers from 29 May to 10 June.
On 18 June, the foreign ministers of the two countries signed a cessation of hostilities agreement, which reflected the current military situation. The terms were more favourable to Ethiopia than earlier proposals had been, and the accord provided for the return to the pre-May 1998 border positions, a 25 km wide de-militarised security zone on Eritrean territory, the deployment of a UN peace-keeping force and the future demarcation of the border. A final, comprehensive peace agreement was signed on 12 December 2000 in Algiers. In it, it was stipulated that the cessation of hostilities was to be permanent, that all prisoners of war were to be returned, and, finally, that an independent commission was to be set up to demarcate the border.
Post-accord tensions
By January 2001, the 4200-strong UN force, UNMEE (United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea), had been fully deployed and a few months later the Temporary Security Zone (TSZ) had been established. In April 2002, the Independent Boundary Commission delivered its delimitation decision. However, it failed to rule on the village of Badme, the flashpoint of the conflict, stating that it required more time. Both states continued to lay claim to the town and relations remained tense. A year later the commission finally ruled on the contentious town, granting it to Eritrea. Even though both sides had agreed that the commissions decision would be binding, Ethiopia rejected the ruling. Subsequently, both the political process and the demarcation of the border came to a halt. In November 2004 Ethiopias parliament voted to accept in principle the ruling of the Independent Boundary Commission. However, the Ethiopian government first wanted a dialogue with its Eritrean counterpart, which the latter refused, and thus the political process remained locked.
The year 2005 saw a military build-up between the parties, as both Ethiopia and Eritrea moved troops and tanks towards the border. Furthermore, relations between Eritrea and the UN worsened during the year. In October the Eritrean government banned UN helicopter flights in its airspace, and in early December it ordered all UN peace keepers from western countries to leave its territory. Subsequently, on 14 December the UN Security Council agreed to pull out all American, Canadian and European peace keepers from Eritrea and temporarily re-locate them in Ethiopia.
The following year Eritrea imposed additional restrictions that further impeded UNMEEs ability to perform its mandated tasks and in September five UN workers were expelled, accused of espionage. In October 1500 Eritrean soldiers entered the buffer zone that separates the two countries, a move that was condemned by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who in a statement said that it was a major violation of the ceasefire agreement from 2000. By December as many as 2000 Eritrean troops with heavy arms were estimated to remain in the zone. Relations between the two states deteriorated further when Ethiopia became directly involved in the conflict in Somalia (see the Somalia section of the database), sending troops to help the government who was fighting rebels supported by Eritrea. A further set-back came in November 2007, when the Border Commission decided to dissolve itself despite the fact that the border had not yet been demarcated on the ground.
The following year saw continued negative developments. Apart from a continued deadlock negotiation-wise, UN-Eritrea relations deteriorated through the first six months of the year and in July 2008, the UN Security Council voted to disband UNMEE.
Re-eruption of violence in 2016 and the signing of the 2018 Peace Agreement
While there has been rumors of border skirmishes since the disbandment of UNMEE, these have not been able to verify. For example, in early January 2010, Eritrea accused Ethiopian soldiers of crossing the border, claiming that they had been repelled by Eritrean troops, having suffered 10 fatalities. Ethiopia, for its part, vehemently denied any armed incursion by its troops, instead accusing the Eritrean government of trying to cover up internal security issues, stating that there had been fighting between Asmara troops and Eritrean rebels.
Relations between the two states remained hostile, and in 2016, tensions heightened, with Ethiopia threatening to take proportional military action if it saw a threat. The tensions came to a head on 12 June, when a battle erupted, involving medium- and long-range artillery. While reliable information on the fighting was difficult to come by, this time both parties agreed that the fighting actually took place, with both sides accusing the other of initiating the two-day battle. According to Asmara, Ethiopian troops attacked Eritrean forces near Tsorona, but were pushed back across the border. Addis Ababa, initially denied any knowledge of the fighting, but later stated that "there were significant casualties on both sides, but more on the Eritrean side."
In 2018, TPLF dominance of Ethiopia was ended through popular protests, resulting in Abiy Ahmed becoming prime minister. Along a flurry of reforms, Abiy Ahmed announced Ethiopia's willingness to abide by a 2002 boundary commission arbitration that it had previously rejected. The parties signed a peace treaty in September 2018, in which Ethiopia agreed to withdraw from contested territory and friendly relations be resumed.
