SUMMARY
The territorial conflict over Aceh in northern Indonesia steams from economic and religious grievances and was active during several intervals. GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka/Free Aceh Movement) began fighting for independence in the 1970s but was defeated by government troops. The group re-emerged in 1990 and the conflict intensified towards the end of the 1990s. The devastating tsunami in 2004 was followed by ceasefires and a peace agreement in 2005, which marked the end of the armed conflict.
IN DEPTH
Background to the conflict
Aceh is located on the northern tip of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The region is rich in natural resources such as oil and natural gas and the uneven distribution of the wealth obtained from these resources has been central in the development of the conflict. In 1992, it was reported that Aceh provided 15% of Indonesia’s total exports, and the value of the oil and gas fields was in 2003 estimated to generate US$1.2-1.5 billion annually.
Historically, the sultan of Aceh united surrounding areas and created a strong Islamic state with robust trade in gold and pepper with the European settlements that was located in present-day Malaysia. With the intention of securing political stability in the East Indian trade, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom signed the Treaty of Sumatra in 1871. The Treaty established that the Dutch (which had been influential in the area since the 17th century) would be given “an entirely free hand in Sumatra,” while guaranteeing British trade with the island. The Treaty eventually led to war between the Dutch and the Acehnese sultanate (1873-1913).
After the collapse of the pepper production in the mid-1920s, an Acehnese independence movement led by reformist Islamic leaders became influential. Following the Japanese occupation during the Second World War, the Dutch never attempted to resume control of Aceh, and the region became an important base for the Indonesian independence movement.
Four months after the declaration of Indonesian independence, on 17 December 1949, the province of Aceh was established with a large degree of autonomy. In August 1950, Acehnese autonomy was withdrawn as the province was incorporated into the province of North Sumatra. This move, as well as discontent with other Indonesian policies - for example its secular society and government – led to Acehnese political and religious leaders supporting the Darul Islam rebellion in the 1950s, which fought for an Indonesian Islamic state. The Acehnese governor Daud Beureueh declared Aceh independent from Indonesia on 20 September 1953. In 1959, Indonesian President Sukarno restored Aceh as an autonomous province with greater control over local government and religion. This status was removed when General Suharto ousted Sukarno and established “the New Order” in the mid-1960s.
In 1971, Mobil Oil Indonesia discovered massive reserves of natural gas in north Aceh, which led to the creation of the Lhokesemawe Industrial Zone (ZILS.) The development of the oil and gas fields in north Aceh, and the influx of migrant workers into the province annoyed the conservative Muslim rural population. At the same time, not much money filtered back to the Acehnese; in the 1970s only 5% of the revenue from ZILS went to the local government.
The formation of GAM and clashes in the 1970s and the beginning of 1990s
Religious and economic grievances led to the second Acehnese rebellion led by Teungku Hasan M. di Tiro – founder and chairman of GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka/Free Aceh Movement) – who declared an independent Aceh in December 1976. The organisation mainly consisted of idealistic intellectuals, and the swift Indonesian response through a combination of military repression and economic programs, soon ended the rebellion. By 1979, most GAM members were exiled, imprisoned, or executed.
The increasing influx of migrant workers and their non-Islamic behaviour led to widespread dissatisfaction among the Acehnese population throughout the 1980s. Some younger GAM members had been trained by Libya, and a discontent among local army recruits led to a reinvented GAM in 1989. After an increasing number of violent incidents, the government created the Aceh DOM (Daerah Operasi Militar, Military operations area) in 1990, and launched a large-scale campaign against GAM and Acehnese civilians. After a few years of clashes, it appeared as if GAM was defeated.
GAM strengthens its positions and violence erupts again in the late 1990s
The economic crisis of 1997 and the political changes in Indonesia that followed led to renewed activity by the independence movement, fuelled and radicalised by the atrocities committed towards the Acehnese during DOM (Daerah Operasi Militar, Military operations area).
During the early 1990s, it had only managed to control small pockets, however, in the late 1990s GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka/Free Aceh Movement) managed to set up alternative local administrations in parts of Aceh. These local administrations were a key factor in the conflict dynamics during the last years of the conflict since GAM managed to extract financial resources from areas under its control. Other means of extracting financial resources were reportedly kidnappings and extortions towards companies in the region, claiming that they should pay “tax to Aceh.”
Throughout the conflict, GAM’s leadership and its government-in-exile in Sweden managed to lead the political movement. The structure of the organisation on the ground in Aceh was constructed of largely independent cells, which may explain why there was less factional in-fighting than in many other conflicts. In 1999, when there were questions about di Tiros health, divisions became visible as a breakaway group calling themselves MP-GAM (Majelis Pemarintahan-GAM) surfaced, but the group soon reintegrated into the main organisation.
International influence on the Aceh conflict has been minimal. GAM has mainly managed to muster support through exiled Acehnese, and Indonesia has tried to seal off access to the province. The Libyan government helped GAM with training 1986-89, but did not supply any arms or other backing for the group.
Negotiations and renewed government offensive in the beginning of the 2000s
Negotiations in the conflict suddenly began in the beginning of 2000, with the mediation of the Swiss-based non-governmental organisation Henri Dunant Centre. After contacts both on the ground in Aceh, and between higher representatives mainly meeting in Geneva, the two parties agreed to a “Humanitarian Pause” in the fighting on 12 May 2000. This pause led to a reduction of violence, and was later lengthened to January 2001. Negotiations continued in the early months of 2001 until April when the Indonesian president Wahid sent a Presidential Instruction to end the conflict once and for all and initiated a renewed government offensive. In an attempt to erode support for independence, the new Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed a law on 9 August 2001 that proclaimed special autonomy to Aceh. An all-inclusive approach to negotiations was suggested, and February, May, and December 2002 saw discussions in Geneva leading to the signing of a Cessation of Hostilities Agreement on 9 December 2002.
The agreement called for a Joint Security Committee to be established and peace monitors from Thailand and the Philippines were invited. On 9 February 2003, the first part of the agreement had been implemented and seven peace-zones were established in Aceh. After this, the process derailed and by May, the government announced that martial law was to be imposed in the province as part of a new large-scale offensive to “crush” GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka/Free Aceh Movement).
During the first half of 2003 there was progress made in talks between GAM and the Indonesian government. However, when the peace negotiations failed on 19 May the conflict intensified. Aceh was placed under a military emergency and an additional 51 000 soldiers and police officers were deployed to eradicate an estimated 5200 GAM guerrillas. For the rest of the year Aceh was virtually cut off from independent media coverage; the government exercised effective control of media, banned foreign and local journalists, and expelled numerous NGOs, diplomats and independent observers from the region.
In May 2004, the military emergency was downgraded to a civil emergency and the new President, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, decided to extend it for a further six month period.
Ceasefires and peace agreement following the tsunami in 2004
By the end of 2004, the Aceh province was hit hard by the devastating natural disaster of the 26 December Indian Ocean tsunami, with a death toll estimated at over 160 000 for Aceh and around 225 000 for the entire region. Moves toward peace emerged in the wake of the tsunami with both GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka/Free Aceh Movement) and the Indonesian Government declaring unilateral ceasefires the day after the natural catastrophe. However, this ceasefire was violated already on 1 January 2005 with 175 battle related deaths during the first three months of the year.
Nevertheless, pressure from international donors of relief and reconstruction aid persuaded the Indonesian government and GAM to recommence peace negotiations. After five rounds of talks brokered by the former Finnish President Marti Ahtisaari between late January and mid-July the two sides agreed on a memorandum of understanding, which was signed on 15 August 2005. The agreement stipulated the demobilization and disbandment of GAM’s rebel troops and their reintegration into civilian life. All demobilized combatants were given the right to an employment or to appropriate farmlands. The agreement also restricted the presence of government troops in the region. The territorial incompatibility was regulated through an agreement on self-governance for Aceh. Furthermore, the agreement gave the province the right to govern itself in all sectors of public affairs except foreign affairs, external defence, national security, monetary and fiscal matters, justice and freedom of religion. Provisions were also made for an Aceh Monitoring Mission, consisting of observers from EU and ASEAN countries, in order to monitor and verify the implementation of the peace agreement. Finally a general amnesty was proclaimed, and a release of political prisoners and detainees was stipulated.
Several parts of the peace accord were implemented during the fall of 2005, as governmental forces withdrew from Aceh and GAM carried out decommissioning of their weapons. Another positive trend was that the violence decreased substantially after the peace accord was in place. Moreover, the implementation of the peace agreement took an important step forward when elections were held in Aceh on 11 December 2006. The elections resulted in victories for candidates associated with the former separatist GAM.
