SUMMARY
The feeling of cultural uniqueness among the local population, in combination with the region’s prosperity, resulted in separatist demands in the Basque region and the formation of ETA (Euskadi ta azkatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) in 1959. ETA waged a small scale violent campaign against the Spanish government from 1959 to 2011 when they declared the cessation of its armed struggle. The group remained committed to achieving secession from Spain and amnesty for several hundred of its jailed activists.
IN DEPTH
Origins of Basque separatism and the ETA
The region known as the Basque Country is located in the north of Spain and in the southwest of France. The inhabitants of this area, the Basque people, have for centuries claimed their cultural distinctiveness from other people residing in Spain and France. The region’s prosperity, together with the sense of cultural uniqueness, has motivated the Basques to aspire to political independence from the Spanish central government in Madrid. Basque nationalism took a political form in the Basque National Party (PNV) in the early 20th century. During the Franco dictatorship (1939-1975), the Basque people were violently suppressed, which resulted in growing Basque nationalism.
In the 1950s, discontent with the PNVs strategy of peaceful resistance to the Franco regime spread among groups of students, who began organizing themselves. The first seeds of ETA (Euskadi ta azkatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) emerged in 1952, and the group was formed on 31 July 1959. The group had the stated goal of liberating the Basque regions of Vizcaya, Alava, and Guipuzcoa, the bordering Navarra region, as well as the Basque parts of France from Spanish (and French) rule, and establishing an independent Basque state. Driven by a mixture of Marxist and colonial liberation thoughts, ETA adopted a strategy of action-repression-action. According to this theory, attacks on governmental representatives would provoke the government into harsh overreaction against the general Basque population, which would cause more of the population to join the struggle. In the long run, this type of warfare has resulted in little popular support for ETA among the Basques. Yet, ETA has proved to be a strong organization in that it has repeatedly been able to regroup after severe setbacks.
All Spanish governments have rejected ETA as rebels wanting to attack the Spanish territorial integrity. As mentioned earlier, the Franco regime brutally tried to wipe out ETA and the Basque people. Subsequent Spanish governments, led by Adolfo Suárez Gonzalez, Felipe Gonzalez Marquez, and José Maria Aznar Lopez, were more moderate. Even though they continued to maintain the position that Spain is an indivisible territory, they have been willing to give the Basque region far-reaching autonomy. At the same time, Spanish governments have maintained a firm policy of not holding any talks with ETA as long as attacks are ongoing. Throughout the conflict period, thus, there have been very few direct meetings between ETA and the Spanish government.
Violence first broke out in 1961, when ETA attempted to derail a train transporting politicians. The police responded with road controls, arrests, house searches, and the widespread use of torture. In 1965-67, armed activities targeting the Spanish military and Spanish politicians became more frequent. Government buildings were bombed, and shootouts with the police took place increasingly often. The first deadly attack occurred on 7 June 1968, when a policeman was killed during a gun battle at a police roadblock.
Armed conflict and unstable peace
ETA (Euskadi ta azkatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) started its campaign of violence with bombings and shootings in the Basque country. The conflict first became active in 1978, most of the victims being civil guards and local police. ETA also began to target military installations and officials in Madrid. The group has traditionally aimed to avoid hurting civilians. Instead, it focused on assassinations, kidnappings, bombings, and shootings of the Spanish police, security personnel, and politicians. In the latter part of the 1990s, however, a number of indiscriminate attacks were carried out, and ETA seemed to have somewhat changed its original strategy. The Spanish government has concentrated on arresting leading ETA members and on other measures, including targeting the group’s support structure in France.
The position of France, a key player since part of the territory claimed by ETA is located in that country, has shifted during the conflict. In the early years of ETA activity, the French government generally turned a blind eye to ETA activities on its side of the border as long as these did not result in separatist activity within its own country, and it was therefore accused of providing safe havens for ETA which established bases and support structures in southern France. However, this began to change in the late 1970s, and by the mid-1980s, France was cooperating with Spain in operations targeting ETA structures and leadership. Meanwhile, there has been ample speculation about secondary support for ETA. Some have claimed that the group has been part of an international network and receiving support from states such as China, Cuba, Libya, and the Soviet Union. However, such allegations have rarely been supported by any substantive evidence.
The conflict was active during most of the 1980s, and again in 1991-1992. Attempts to bring about negotiations between the parties have usually failed: the government has demanded that ETA lay down its weapons before any talks and has rejected discussion on political issues, while ETA has maintained demands of Basque self-determination, incorporation of Navarra into the Basque region, withdrawal of Spanish forces, and the legalization of Basque groups and an amnesty for ETA members. Official negotiations were held for the first time in 1989 in Algeria but failed to overcome these differences and violence resumed.
In early 1992, however, ETA suffered a severe setback when several of its leading members were arrested. The conflict has not been at an active level since. Yet, even though the organization was weakened, attacks continued in the ensuing years. A respite from the low-level violence was given from September 1998 to November 1999, when ETA observed a ceasefire. This positive turn gave hope of further progress, as there were reports of secret talks between the warring parties in 1999. However, no success was obtained during these talks. During 2001-2005, international cooperation on the issue intensified. This resulted in increasing pressure on ETA and the outlawing of the Herri Batasuna, a party widely held to be ETA's political branch.
Between 2004 and late 2006, ETA attacks claimed no casualties. However, small-scale bomb attacks continued, and the group was initially suspected of having carried out the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which later were found to be connected to al-Qaeda. After widespread speculation that the Socialist Party government under Zapatero had begun clandestine talks with the group, ETA proclaimed a "permanent ceasefire" on 24 March 2006. ETA stated that they were willing to enter into negotiations with the government to allow for a democratic decision on the future of the Basque province. Low-level talks between Batasuna and regional Basque political parties began, but the tension in the form of low-level street violence and incendiary attacks returned to the province. On 30 December 2006, an ETA bomb exploded at Madrid's airport, killing two civilians. Following this attack, Zapatero's government canceled negotiations with the group. Although ETA initially maintained that it had kept its "permanent ceasefire" despite the December 2006 attack, on 5 June 2007, the group declared the truce to be over. It blamed Zapatero for ruining the peace process by continuing to detain ETA members and barring most pro-independence candidates from Basque local elections held in May.
The fundamental dilemma between the warring parties remains – the Spanish government maintains that ETA must lay down its weapons before any negotiations can be held; ETA's viewpoint, on the other hand, is that a political agreement must precede the termination of armed force. However, as the number of battle-related deaths has not reached 25 since 1992, the conflict remains terminated as of that year.
ETA declares a permanent ceasefire in early 2011
ETA had continued to be weakened since 1992, as numerous prominent ETA members had been arrested. A ceasefire proclamation was nothing new in the history of ETA due to the numerous ceasefire announcements in the past. Yet another permanent ceasefire proclamation in 2011 was preceded by ETA announcing the group would abstain from offensive armed action in September 2010. However, the 2010 statement was met with skepticism due to the previous broken ceasefire declarations. Despite governmental skepticism, ETA once more made a ceasefire proclamation on 10 January. In the official statement, the Basque separatist group announced a future engagement in a peaceful and democratic process to find a solution to the Basque issue. As a response, the deputy Prime Minister at the time, Alfredo Perez Rubalcaba, promulgated a demand; ETA had to declare a “definite and irreversible” decision to lay down their arms.
On 17 October 2011, an international conference to promote a resolution of the conflict in the Basque country was held in the Peace House in Donostia-San Sebastian. The conference was organized by Lokarri (The Basque Citizen Network for Agreement and Consultation), GIC (International Contact Group) and four international foundations (Berghof Foundation, Conciliation Resources, The Desmond and Leah Tutu Legacy Foundation and NOREF). Neither the Spanish government nor ETA was represented. However, a diversity of representatives including political parties from France as well as the Basque country, trade unions, the church, business people and prominent international negotiators (including the former Secretary-General Kofi Anan and Sinn Fein leader Gary Adams) were participating in the talks. The result of the conference was rather comprehensive. ETA was called upon in order for the group to declare a definite ceasefire and initiate talks with the French and Spanish governments. A reconciliation process was recommended, along with compensation to the victims of the conflict. In a peaceful process, a third party involvement, along with the presence of civil society, was presented in the final declaration. Also, the participants expressed a willingness to follow up the recommendation through the formation of a committee.
ETA responded positively to the conference and recognized an opportunity to engage in a peaceful solution, and the time for a definite end to coercive means for independence. After the conference, ETA made a video statement where the group fortified its commitment to a transition to a non-violent organization with a decision on a definitive cessation of all armed struggle and a wish for dialogue. In line with the outcome of the San Sebastian conference, ETA made a call upon the Spanish and French governments to open a process of talks in order to solve the protracted conflict. In November, ETA took yet another step towards its outspoken ceasefire declaration by offering a dialogue on disarmament. Despite a definite ceasefire declaration, the goal of secession within a socialist society still existed. In its statement, ETA made a call upon the Basque society to be involved in the process. The Prime Minister at the time, José Rodriguez Zapatero, expressed a positive attitude to the ETA announcement which he perceived as a “victory for democracy, law and reason.” However, the defense minister in the Zapatero administration rebuffed the invitation for dialogue, thus following the pattern of his predecessors. Spain installed a new government after the November election in 2011 with a victory for the center-right Popular party, thus ousting Zapatero.
In July 2012, ETA again announced that it remained committed to its unilateral ceasefire. However, the group remained committed to achieving secession from Spain and amnesty for several hundred of its jailed activists. ETA reached out to the Spanish and French Governments throughout 2012 in an effort to begin a dialogue and negotiations with both countries. However, both Spain and France refused these invitations and renewed their own demands that ETA completely disarm and disband. Since then the question has come to a standstill with the government arresting different ETA members and ETA refusing to complete the dismantling of its remaining weapons and explosives.
