General information
Part of Conflict: Congo: Government
Date of first stated goals of incompatibility: 1993-06-01
Comment on date of first stated goal of incompatibility: The situation in Congo was extremely confused from the disputed May 1993 elections and onwards. Claiming fraud, the opposition parties refused to contest the second round of voting due to take place in June. Thus, the UPADS of President Lissouba was able to secure an absolute majority of seats in the National Assembly. In response to this, MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas in June nominated a rival government and called for a “military solution” to the conflict. In connection to this the MCDDI leadership decided to create a militia out of the self-defense groups that had emerged in the parties strongholds in southern Brazzaville in late 1992. Thus, the Ninja militia was formed.
Date of first use of armed force: 1993-11-03
Comment on date of first use of armed force: Following the disputed May elections and the opposition’s call for a military solution to the conflict, the capital of Brazzaville soon became largely ungovernable. In June and July, violence between supporters of the government and the opposition left at least 30 people dead. While it was clear that the main political parties started to create armed militias during these months, their role in the ongoing violence as well as their level of organisation is not possible to determine. However, when fresh fighting broke out on 3 November the same year, it was clear that it was between the Ninjas, the armed militia of MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas, and the army. Thus, even though the country had been plunged into violence many months earlier, the incident on 3 November is the first one that beyond doubt consisted of fighting between organised opposition militia and the army.
The November violence took place in the Bakongo district in Brazzaville, an area mainly inhabited by supporters of MCDDI, and at this time under the control of the Ninja militia. Fighting commenced when the army moved troops, backed by armour into the area, announcing on state radio that the operation was designed to smash armed militias loyal to Kolelas.
First Battle Related Death: 1993-11-03
Comment on First Battle Related Death: Following the disputed May elections and the opposition’s call for a military solution to the conflict, the capital of Brazzaville soon became largely ungovernable. In June and July, violence between supporters of the government and the opposition left at least 30 people dead. While it was clear that the main political parties started to create armed militias during these months, their role in the ongoing violence as well as their level of organisation is not possible to determine. However, when fresh fighting broke out on 3 November the same year, it was clear that it was between the Ninjas, the armed militia of MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas, and the army. Thus, even though the country had been plunged into violence many months earlier, the incident on 3 November is the first one that beyond doubt consisted of fighting between organised opposition militia and the army.
The November violence took place in the Bakongo district in Brazzaville, an area mainly inhabited by supporters of MCDDI, and at this time under the control of the Ninja militia. Fighting commenced when the army moved troops, backed by armour into the area, announcing on state radio that the operation was designed to smash armed militias loyal to Kolelas. While it is very probable that the first fatality was incurred already on the first day of fighting, no death toll was available until on the second day, when hospital sources talked of numerous deaths.
Date when dyad reached 25 battle releated deaths: 1993-11-11
Comment on date when dyad reached 25 battle related deaths: Following the disputed May elections and the opposition’s call for a military solution to the conflict, the capital of Brazzaville soon became largely ungovernable. In June and July, violence between supporters of the government and the opposition left at least 30 people dead. While it was clear that the main political parties started to create armed militias during these months, their role in the ongoing violence as well as their level of organisation is not possible to determine. However, when fresh fighting broke out on 3 November the same year, it was clear that it was between the Ninjas, the armed militia of MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas, and the army. Thus, even though the country had been plunged into violence many months earlier, the incident on 3 November is the first one that beyond doubt consisted of fighting between organised opposition militia and the army.
The November violence took place in the Bakongo district in Brazzaville, an area mainly inhabited by supporters of MCDDI, and at this time under the control of the Ninja militia. Fighting commenced when the army moved troops, backed by armour into the area, announcing on state radio that the operation was designed to smash armed militias loyal to Kolelas. The fighting continued until 11 November, when the government troops were withdrawn from Bakongo. At that time it was reported that at least 39 people had been killed during the nine-day operation.
Conflict issues
Conflict Goal Issues: The Ninjas was a Congolese ethnic group originally made up of fighters from the Lari ethnic group, with the goal of protecting the Lari people and ensuring democratic standards be met by the government following the democratization of the Congo in 1991. The group emerged in 1993 and was coded as pronouncing conflict goal issues with demands of cancelling and reorganizing parts of the 1993 electoral cycle after alleging electoral fraud by the government.
During its second year of pronouncing conflict goal issues, 1999, the group only made one statement pertaining to conflict goal issues, vowing to oust President Laurent-Désiré Kabila who seized power in 1997. As no issue was continuously stated, no main issue was attributed to the Ninjas.
Conflict Dynamics Issues: During the year of its emergence the Ninjas pronounced its only coded statement pertaining to conflict dynamics, when the group demanded the release of “opposition militants arrested after violent incidents during Sunday's voting.” No further issues were stated, and no main conflict dynamics issue was interpreted for the group.
Conflict Resolution Issues: The Ninjas released no statements pertaining to the resolution of the conflict.
Type of conflict issues: Conflict Goal Issues: Electoral fraud, Hold elections, Oust head of the executive
Conflict Dynamics Issues: Release of prisoners
Conflict Resolution Issues:
Annual information
This section contains annual information systematically collected by the UCDP.
1993
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 53 |
| Best | 53 |
| Low | 53 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
1994
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 19 |
| Best | 14 |
| Low | 14 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
1995
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
1997
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
1998
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 123 |
| Best | 101 |
| Low | 101 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): Government of Angola, Government of Chad
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
1999
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): Government of Angola, Government of Chad
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
Peace agreements
Name of peace agreement: Agreement on Ending Hostilities in the Republic of Congo
Date when warring parties signed the agreement: 1999-11-16
Comment of peace agreement: Partial Peace Agreement
The Agreement on Ending Hostilities in the Republic of Congo was the first partial agreement of two 1999 agreements aimed at ceasing hostilities in Congo. The agreement called for an end to violence and return to democratic society, as well as provisions for amnesty and DDR processes.
Regarding the incompatibility, the agreement aimed at creating a unified state and state bodies. Provisions stipulated (re-)integration of the security forces and civil service.
Other provisions included a release of prisoners, creation of a monitoring commission to oversee implementation, and return of displaced and exiled persons. A High Authority was appointed to promote National Reconciliation.
Signatories: p.p. the Command of the Security Forces, General Gilbert Mokoki
p.p. the Ninja Command, Bernard Ntandou
p.p. the Résistance Sud Sud Command, Fidèle Ngoma Adada
p.p. the Cobras Command, Faustin Elenga
p.p. the MNLCR Command, Martin Ngolo
p.p. the MNLC Command, Colonel M'Bouissi-Moukoko
p.p. the “Bana Dol” Command, P/M Jean-Michel Dississa
p.p. the World Peace Council Africa Area/Congo. Fed. (Facilitator), Vital Bala
p.p. the Monitoring Commission of the Douala Appeal (Facilitator), Marius Mouambenga
Comment of signatories: Comprehensive peace agreement signed on 16 November 1999 in Pointe-Noire.
Full-text peace agreement
Name of peace agreement: Ceasefire and ending hostilities agreement between the High Command of the Security Forces and the High Command of the Self-Defence Forces of Resistance
Date when warring parties signed the agreement: 1999-12-29
Comment of peace agreement: Partial peace agreement
"Accord de Cessez-le-Feu et de Cessation des Hostilités" was signed on 29 December 1999 in Brazzaville. The accord follows a previous agreement, "Accord de Cessation des Hostilités en République du Congo", which was signed on 16 November 1999. "Accord de Cessez-le-Feu et de Cessation des Hostilités" called for an immediate cessation of hostilities and the creation of a creation of a "comité de suivi mixte et paritaire" (CDS) to implement the accord. This committee was to oversee the disarmament of the militias, the integration of former fighters into the armed forces and collection of weapons from these groups. The accord also guaranteed the free circulation of people and their goods throughout the country, and allowed for former civil servants to resume their posts. Also stipulated in the accord was the launching of a national dialogue, a "Dialogue National sans exclusif". This process was to lead to the drafting of a new constitution and to a series of elections to return the country to normal, multiparty political life
Signatories: General Gilbert Mokoki, for the High Command of the Congolese Armed Forces, Colonel Pierre Boungou-Boungo, for the High Command of FADR, Colonel Victor Moukanda, for the High Command of FADR, Colonel Emmanuel Boungouanza, for the High Command of FADR, Joseph Mbizi, for the High Command of FADR, Colonel Francois Bouesse, for the High Command of FADR, A. Mboumbou-Miyakou, Gabonese interior-, defence-, and decentralisation minister, signing on behalf of the President of Gabon, Général Pierre Oba, interior- and defence minister, signing on behalf of the President of Congo.
Comment of signatories: Comprehensive peace agreement
FADR, Forces dAuto-Défense de la Résistance, was the military wing of CNR, Conseil National de la Résistance, a Ninja, Cocoye and Ntsiloulou umbrella group. The five signatories from FADR represented each of the southern regions.
Third parties: Omar Bongo, President of Gabon and A. Mboumbou-Miyakou, Gabonese Interior-, Defence-, and Decentralisation minister
Comment of third parties role in peace agreement: President Omar Bongo of Gabon, who had been designated official mediator between the government and the militias in December 1999, headed the negotiations leading up to the accord. Also helping in the mediation effort was A. Mboumbou-Miyakou, Gabonese Interior-, Defence-, and Decentralisation minister.
Comment of Duration: The spokespersons for the militias were gravely dissatisfied with the implementation of the accord in general, and with the National Dialogue in particular. They criticized the environment in which the Dialogue took place and argued that the terms of the accords were not observed. More specifically, they stated that the CDS never carried out its work of overseeing the accord and that the reorganisation of the public forces was not carried out as envisioned. However, the dialogue did take place, as stipulated in the agreement and in 2002 presidential elections were held. Most of the Cobras have now been integrated into the army, otherwise regularized, or disbanded. Ninjas and Cocoyes have also largely disbanded and returned to civilian life. The UN continued its reintegration programme for former militiamen, which was intended to consolidate the peace. The process was slow, however, due to substantial under funding. In 2002, one of the warring parties who had signed the agreement, the Ntsiloulous, broke the ceasefire and low-intensity clashes continued throughout the year in the Pool region. The Ninjas and the Cocoyes stood by the agreement, however, wherefore the fighting never came close to reaching the levels of the late 1990s.
Full-text peace agreement
2000
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
2001
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
2002
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
2016
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
2018
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Congo): n/a
Side B (Ninjas): n/a
Dyad Archive
This section contains annual information no longer systematically collected by the UCDP.
1993 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: YES
Comment on Negotiations: An agreement to end the violence was reached by the Prime Minister, Joachim Yhombi-Opango and MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas on 26 November 1993. Under the agreement the Prime Minister was to order the security forces back to barracks while Kolelas was to call for calm.
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: Ceasefire
Date of termination: 1993-12-31
Comment on Termination: Negotiations were initiated almost instantly as the violence took a more organised form in November 1993. Subsequently, on 26 November, an agreement was reached by the Prime Minister, Joachim Yhombi-Opango and MCDDI leader Bernard Kolelas to end the violence. Under the agreement the Prime Minister was to order the security forces back to barracks while Kolelas was to call for calm. However, the fighting continued and in January the following year, Gen. Ngollo, the national mediator, hosted new negotiations with the parties. On 30 January a ceasefire was signed between MCDDI and President Lissouba's party, UPADS, in which both sides agreed to disarm their militias and also undertook to put into place an intervention force, charged with monitoring the truce. This ceasefire was largely observed and the conflict remained muted the following three years.
1994 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: YES
Comment on Negotiations: Gen. Ngollo, the national mediator attempted to mediate during the January violence, and on 30 January a ceasefire was signed between MCDDI and President Lissoubas party, UPADS (Pan-African Union for Social Democracy). Both sides agreed to disarm their militias and also undertook to put into place an intervention force, charged with monitoring the ceasefire. The intervention force was to both act as a buffer between warring militias and recover weapons from the militias. The two parties also agreed to abide by the result of the international monitors who were examining the disputed results of the May -93 voting. In December President Lissouba hosted a regional peace forum in Brazzaville. The domestic element of this initiative was a series of meetings between Lissouba and political leaders, culminating in an agreement to set up a committee to monitor the disarmament of the militias, and to reorganise the judiciary and security forces. Mr Sassou-Nguessou joined Mr Kolelas and President Lissouba in signing up to this initiative and he also accepted the invitation to join the monitoring committee in his capacity as former head of state.
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: Ceasefire
Date of termination: 1994-01-30
Comment on Termination: On 30 January 1994 a ceasefire was signed between MCDDI / Ninjas and the government. Both sides agreed to disarm their militias and also undertook to put into place an intervention force, charged with monitoring the ceasefire. The intervention force was to both act as a buffer between warring militias and recover weapons from the militias. The two parties also agreed to abide by the result of the international monitors who were examining the disputed results of the May 1993 voting.
1995 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
1997 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
1998 Dyad Archive
Comment on Yearly Battle Related Deaths: There was a lull in the fighting in early 1998, but during the second half of 1998 the conflict intensified again. In August there was a general uprising in the Pool, due to the atrocities committed by security forces, Cobra militiamen and Angolan troops as they sought to disarm Ninjas hiding in the forest. While some Ninjas continued to fight under the banner of Kolelas, many joined a new, armed faction called the Ntsiloulous which was led by Frederic Bitsangou, more known as Pasteur Ntoumi.
However, as both the Ninjas and Ntsiloulous were often referred to as "Ninjas" it is not possible to establish who was responsible for the various attacks. The total death toll in the fighting between the government and the Ninjas and Ntsiloulous was over 3100. Since this was the first year that the Ntsiloulous were active, and they may have been slightly weaker due to this, the decision was taken to assign all fatalities where no specific perpetrator was given to the Ninja dyad.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: After Mr Sassou-Nguessou seized power in October 1997, Mr Kolelas and President Lissouba fled the country. Since then, Sassou-Nguessou has refused to initiate a dialogue with them.
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: Other
Date of termination: 1998-12-31
Comment on Termination: During 1998, the Ntsiloulous succeeded in gaining control over an increasing number of Ninja units. This process continued and intensified after the Ntsiloulou's failed attack on Brazzaville in December 1998, and by the spring of 1999, Ntsiloulou leader Ntumi had managed to co-opt the entire Ninja movement.
Comment on Termination Date: During 1998, the Ntsiloulous succeeded in gaining control over an increasing number of Ninja units. This process continued and intensified after the Ntsiloulou's failed attack on Brazzaville in December 1998, and by the spring of 1999, Ntsiloulou leader Ntumi had managed to co-opt the entire Ninja movement.
1999 Dyad Archive
Comment on Yearly Battle Related Deaths: Since media reports do not distinguish between Ninjas and Ntsiloulous - Ntsiloulous are also referred to as Ninjas - it is not possible to know which group is responsible for which clashes. In 1999 there were 562 deaths, which involved either Ninjas or Ntsiloulous. However, since the Ninjas were very marginalized in 1999, it is reasonable to believe that the grand majority can be connected to the Ntsiloulous.
Negotiations: YES
Comment on Negotiations: After Mr Sassou-Nguessou seized power in October 1997, Mr Kolelas and President Lissouba fled the country. Since then, Sassou-Nguessou has refused to initiate a dialogue with them, and they were both tried in absentia for war crimes and sentenced to death in 1999. However, in 1999 negotiations between the warring parties did take place, even if the former President and Prime Minister were excluded. Following four days of intense negotiations between representatives of the government and some smaller groupings of Cocoye and Ninja militias, a ceasefire agreement was signed in Pointe-Noir on 16 November 1999. In December President Bongo of Gabon was designated the official mediator and the same month he hosted further discussions in Libreville, Gabon. Again an accord was signed, this time by representatives of the Cocoye-Ntsiloulou umbrella organisation, Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR).
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: Peace Agreement
Date of termination: 1999-12-29
Comment on Termination: A peace agreement was signed on 29 December 1999 in Brazzaville.
2000 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2001 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2002 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2016 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2018 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
