General information
Part of Conflict: Angola: Cabinda
Date of first stated goals of incompatibility: 1992-07-30
Comment on date of first stated goal of incompatibility: In an attempt to draw attention to the conflict in Cabinda, FLEC-Rs then president Jose Tiburcio Luemba met the media in Lisbon on 30 July 1992. He stated that FLEC-R wants the decolonisation process to be reviewed and that they will continue their armed struggle until they achieve independence. In 1989 a group of people broke out of FLEC-FAC and formed FLEC-PM (Posicâo Militaire), which was the predecessor of FLEC-R. There is very limited media coverage of the Cabindan conflict, and the 1992 statement is the first declaration of intent that can be found on FLEC-Rs part. However, the split from FLEC-FACs is generally attributed to differing views on whether of not to negotiate with the government, and not to a change in the goal of the struggle. Thus, a logic assumption is that FLEC-R, from the start fought for an independent Cabinda.
Date of first use of armed force: 1991-05-18
Comment on date of first use of armed force: 29 government troops and 6 FLEC-R guerrillas died in fighting between 18 May and 3 June 1991.
First Battle Related Death: 1991-05-18
Comment on First Battle Related Death: 29 government troops and 6 FLEC-R guerrillas died in fighting between 18 May and 3 June 1991.
Date when dyad reached 25 battle releated deaths: 1991-12-31
Comment on date when dyad reached 25 battle related deaths: 29 government troops and 6 FLEC-R guerrillas died in fighting between 18 May and 3 June 1991.
Conflict issues
Conflict Goal Issues: FLEC-R (Frente da Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda – Renovada) was a rebel group in Angola’s exclave of Cabinda. The group stressed Cabinda’s identity, culture, and colonial history as distinct from that of Angola, which the group claimed illegally occupied the exclave after independence. It splintered from FLEC-FAC in the early 1980s, and its first conflict goal issues were coded for 1991. It called for independence for Cabinda, rejecting President dos Santos’s offer of greater autonomy. It also demanded a referendum to decide on the topic of Cabindan independence. The rebel group has called for five different conflict goal issues. While it initially demanded independence and a referendum on that topic, the group changed its position on these issues in 1995: “FLEC-R indicated that it would now accept meaningful autonomy, short of full independence, and would shelve its previous insistence on an immediate independence referendum.” This change was likely due to the negotiations with the Angolan government that took place during 1995. A ceasefire agreement was signed with FLEC-R in 1996 but fighting resumed the following year. The group then returned to its original demands for independence and a referendum. The other three goals were coded just one year each: opposition to elections, autonomy, and revenues from natural resources. The group opposed Angola’s first elections in 1992, threatening those who vote with the punishment of leaving Cabinda for Angola. As discussed, FLEC-R called for autonomy when it softened its stance on independence. In 1999, the group called for increased control over the province’s oil production. FLEC-R’s main conflict goal issue was independence. Despite its softer stance on the issue during negotiations in 1995, the years before and after were characterized by continuous calls for independence that emphasized its importance to the group. This was demonstrated when the group stated “that they will continue their armed struggle until they achieve independence” in 1992. In 1996 when fighting with the Angolan government resumed, FLEC-R’s leader Jose Tiburcio stated that “the people of Cabinda wanted independence, not some form of autonomy for the region,” demonstrating the group’s recommitment to its original goal of independence.
Conflict Dynamics Issues: The first conflict dynamics issue of international monitoring was raised by the group in 1991, when it demanded a referendum with monitoring by the Organisation for African Unity and the United Nations. The group has called for a variety of conflict dynamics issues over time, with most being pronounced during just one or two years. The issue called for most often was increased foreign involvement through the use of foreign influence, where FLEC-R urged the international community to involve itself in the conflict. The group also demanded recognition from Portugal and Angola for the right to independence as well as recognition of Cabinda as a Portuguese protectorate, arguably because it believed that in the latter case Portugal would have the ability to grant the region independence. FLEC-R also blamed the Angolan government for collective targeting of the Cabindan people. The other conflict dynamics issues pronounced by the group were only coded for one year each, and included international monitoring and support, removal of foreigners, release of prisoners, atrocities and abuses, and removal of foreign influence. Although the final issue may appear contradictory to the group’s simultaneous call for increased foreign influence, they were compatible. FLEC-R called for the removal of foreign oppression, directed at Angola, but also called for increased foreign involvement from other countries such as Portugal to help it achieve this goal. FLEC-R’s main conflict dynamics issue was IFI: Use of foreign influence, demonstrated by the formulation of this demand and its continuity from 1992 to 2003. This was the conflict dynamics issue called for most often, where the group urged the former colonial power Portugal as well as the international community to involve themselves in the conflict by entering negotiations or condemning the war. The rebels even took five Portuguese hostage in March 2001 in an attempt to force Portugal to involve itself, “They say they want to negotiate with the Portuguese government and want Portugal to help the Cabindan people to achieve independence.”
Conflict Resolution Issues: The first conflict resolution issues were pronounced by the group in 1992, when it both called for negotiations and opposed negotiations. The Angolan government was organizing peace talks on the topic of Cabinda in Switzerland, which FLEC-R was not invited to. The group’s leader Jose Tiburcio stated that it was open for talks but that it opposed the Switzerland negotiations: “the FLEC-Renewal president revealed that they were ready to hold a dialogue with the Angolan government but that they rejected subjugation. As a result, they would not be going to Switzerland to take part in the meeting that Luanda is trying to promote.” The group’s conflict resolution issues mostly remained the same over time. While it both called for and opposed negotiations in 1992, in the following years the only conflict resolution issue coded was call for negotiations. FLEC-R’s main conflict resolution issue was call for negotiations, as it demanded this continuously from 1992 to 2004. As illustrated by previous quotes, the group called for negotiations in order to discuss the status of the exclave and even took Portuguese nationals hostage for this purpose. The issue of negotiations remained central even after leadership changes, demonstrated by a 2004 statement by leader Antonio Bento Bembe: “There is no option but a political process to implement peace in Cabinda… “The FLEC is ready to negotiate an end to hostilities to end the war in Cabinda.””
Type of conflict issues: Conflict Goal Issues: Autonomy, Independence, Opposition to elections, Referendum, Revenues from natural resources
Conflict Dynamics Issues: Atrocities and abuses, Collective targeting: ethnic, DFI: Removal of foreign influence, DFI: Removal of foreigners, IFI: International monitoring, IFI: Recognition, IFI: Use of foreign influence, Release of prisoners
Conflict Resolution Issues Call for negotiations, Opposition to negotiations
Annual information
This section contains annual information systematically collected by the UCDP.
1991
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 41 |
| Best | 25 |
| Low | 6 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1992
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 8 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1993
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1994
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 74 |
| Best | 25 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1995
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 4 |
| Best | 4 |
| Low | 4 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1996
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1997
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 42 |
| Best | 25 |
| Low | 4 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
1998
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 32 |
| Best | 21 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2001
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 7 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2002
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 37 |
| Best | 25 |
| Low | 1 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2003
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2004
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 42 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2005
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2006
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
Peace agreements
Name of peace agreement: Memorandum of Understanding on Peace and National Reconciliation in Cabinda province
Date when warring parties signed the agreement: 2006-08-01
Comment of peace agreement: Partial peace agreement
The Memorandum of Understanding on Peace and National Reconciliation in Cabinda province was signed after some months of much debated negotiations. Antonio Bento Bembe, who signed the agreement as a representative of CFD (Cabinda Forum for Dialogue) was not acknowledged as a legitimate negotiator by the main body of CFD. The unified FLEC split along former FAC-Renovada lines, with the former rejecting Bembe, saying that he had in fact been dismissed of his functions in the organisation already in February, and the latter supporting him.
The agreement included provisions for a ceasefire, demilitarization of the CFD controlled areas and a reduction in the number of Angolan armed forces in Cabinda.
The incompatibility was regulated by the installation of a local government with political and economical powers under the control of the central government in Luanda. Cabinda would have a "special status". Exactly what that status would be was not yet determined. However, it was clear that FLEC would get the right to name a government minister without portfolio, three deputy ministers (petroleum, interior and forestry), a deputy governor and some deputy provincial dictatorships. In Angolas state oil company, Sonangol, it would get two non-executive directors, a deputy director for Cabinda and three administrative advisers.
The accord also stipulated a blanket amnesty to the rebels, and the reinsertion of the former rebels into society.
Signatories: Angolan minister for Territorial Administration, Virgilio de Fontes Pereira and Antonio Bento Bembe
Comment of signatories: Dyadic peace agreement
The Memorandum of Understanding on Peace and National Reconciliation in Cabinda province was signed in Namibe province on 1 August 2006.
Antonio Bento Bembe claimed to sign for the umbrella group Cabindan Forum for Dialogue (CFD), but a majority of the member organisations rejected the accord, stating that Bembe had no negotiating authority. Many went as far as to say that Bembe was in fact on the governments payroll. The ones supporting Bembe and the agreement appeared to be members of FLEC-Renovada. The latter joined with their former protagonists FLEC-FAC in 2004, but in 2006 the unified FLEC split over negotiations and it is probably more correct to see the peace agreement as being agreed by the government and FLEC-R, rather than CFD.
As it was commonly held that it was only FLEC-FAC that could be seen as a credible military force at the time, most analysts were sceptical concerning the future impact of the peace agreement.
Third parties: African Union Chairman and President of the Republic of Congo, Denis Sassou-Nguessou
Comment of third parties role in peace agreement: Denis Sassou-Nguessou hosted the negotiations that led to the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda.
Full-text peace agreement
2007
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2008
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
2022
| Estimated Fatalities | |
|---|---|
| High | 0 |
| Best | 0 |
| Low | 0 |
Secondary Warring Support:
Side A (Government of Angola): n/a
Side B (FLEC-R): n/a
Dyad Archive
This section contains annual information no longer systematically collected by the UCDP.
1991 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 1991-12-31
1992 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
1993 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
1994 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 1994-12-31
Comment on Termination: The conflict did not reach the 25 battle-related death criteria in 1995 therefore the conflict is coded as terminated on 31 December 1994. However the parties agreed on a ceasefire in 1995. In March 1995 it was agreed that government - FLEC-R talks were to be held over the summer. In conjunction with this, FLEC-R indicated that it would consider accepting meaningful autonomy short of independence.The talks were to focus on reaching a ceasefire agreement, aiming at opening the way to substantial negotiations on a long-term peace settlement. Negotiations began in early June in Windhoek, Namibia, mediated by Namibian President Sam Nujoma. Further talks were held in Addis-Abeba, Ethiopia in late June, with President dos Santos and FLEC-R then leader Col. Jose Tiburcio Zingba Luemba. In August the talks started up again in Windhoek, resulting in an agreement on signing a ceasefire. Following a further meeting in Pointe Noir, a four months ceasefire was finally signed on 24 September and came into effect on the night of 26-27 September.
1995 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: YES
Comment on Negotiations: In the autumn of 1994, the government had initiated a new strategy, aiming to first sign truces with the different separatist organisations involved in the fighting, and then to hold a conference with all parties to work out some new formula for provincial autonomy. Thus started a period of intense negotiations with different groups. In March 1995 it was agreed that government - FLEC-R talks were to be held over the summer. These talks were to focus on reaching a ceasefire agreement, aiming at opening the way to substantial negotiations on a long-term peace settlement. In conjunction with this, FLEC-R indicated that it would consider accepting meaningful autonomy short of independence. Negotiations began in early June in Windhoek, Namibia, mediated by Namibian President Sam Nujoma. Further talks were held in Addis-Abeba, Ethiopia in late June, with President dos Santos and FLEC-R then leader Col. Jose Tiburcio Zingba Luemba. In August the talks started up again in Windhoek, resulting in an agreement on signing a ceasefire. Following a further meeting in Pointe Noir, a four months cease-fire was finally signed on 24 September and came into effect on the night of 26-27 September.
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
1996 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
1997 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 1997-12-31
1998 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2001 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2002 Dyad Archive
Comment on Yearly Battle Related Deaths: Medias coverage of the Cabindan conflict is very limited. Most reports of battles come from the FLEC factions, and there are rarely any neutral sources confirming or denying these reports. Thus, summing up the number of battle-related deaths in any given year is a difficult task.
Due to this, the best estimate should not be interpreted as an exact number. Years coded as active are the ones where the activity of the parties is high, where there are numerous reports of deaths and where the surrounding circumstances, e.g. statements made by Angolan government officials, commenting on the efficiency of the rebels or large flows of refugees, all point to a death toll above 25."
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: YES
Type of termination: No or Low Activity
Date of termination: 2002-12-31
2003 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2004 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2005 Dyad Archive
Comment on Active: There appears to have been less fighting in the enclave in 2005 than the previous year. While there were still occasional reports of battles, these were fewer than in 2004. However, it should be noted that reporting from Cabinda is scarce and that there is a lot of secrecy regarding what is actually happening in the interior.
Negotiations: NO
Comment on Negotiations: In late August 2004, FLEC-R had merged with FLEC-FAC, forming a new movement simply called FLEC. The new movement had also launched the ‘Cabindan Forum for Dialogue’, comprising both Cabindan civil society groups and the Catholic Church in the province, which was to serve as the ‘sole valid and representative interlocutor, capable of establishing dialogue with Angola’. However, despite this attempt to facilitate the initiation of a dialogue, there were no negotiations during 2005.
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2006 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2007 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
2008 Dyad Archive
Negotiations: NO
Victory: NO
Terminated: NO
2022 Dyad Archive
Terminated: NO
