SUMMARY
The Mobondo militia was an armed group primarily composed of fighters from the Yaka community. It emerged in Kwamouth territory, Mai-Ndombe province, in western Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), in the context of the Teke-Yaka conflict. The Mobondo has been involved in UCDPs one-sided violence category. The Teke-Yaka conflict was rooted in intercommunal land disputes between the Teke, the original landowners, and non-native communities. While primarily involving the Yaka, the conflict also drew in their allies, including the Suku, Mbala, Ndinga, Songe, and Ngonge peoples.
The size of the Mobondo fighting force has been unclear; however, in 2024, 1000 fighters were conscripted into the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC) to support the conflict against the M23-AFC in North Kivu. Despite this, Mobondo operations in the western DRC continued. After a year of tension, the Teke-Yaka conflict became active in 2022 when a Teke man killed a non-native man from Kwilu province. This incident triggered a series of violent clashes, including the burning of villages by Yaka communities and retaliatory attacks by Teke groups. Members of the Yaka mobilized around Odon Kimona, the self-proclaimed traditional king (or Kiamvu) of the Yaka. His alleged ambition to assert Yaka control over the Bateke Plateau (Plateau of the Teke), and the ensuing cycle of reprisal attacks contributed to the emergence of the Mobondo fighters.
In early 2022, Kiamvu Odon began organizing Yaka and other non-native farmers, encouraging them to take up arms. As the Kiamvu, Odon Kimona was the main spiritual chief, or féticheur, in charge of fetishist rituals called “bondo”. With the backing of the Suku king, he was believed to have revived the Mobondo formula, a set of ritual practices that were said to grant the Yaka protection from firearms and provide invincibility. Initially, the Mobondo targeted members of the Teke ethnic group, but the violence spread to other civilian communities and affected the populations living in the conflict zones. In 2023, the Mobondo became increasingly organized, conducting military-style attacks on both civilians and government security forces. Throughout the year, the group expanded its area of operation and its number of fighters. In June, the Mobondo signaled interest in dialogue with authorities in Kinshasa and a decision was made to establish a commission to facilitate dialogue between the provincial government and Mobondo representatives. By August 2023, the Mobondo were reported to control significant portions of Kwamouth and Bandundu territory, and regularly attacked communities in the Bagata, Kenge, Kimvula, Maluku, and Popokabaka territories. In Kwamouth, they controlled nearly all the territory except for the Congo river coastline and the national roads RN17 and RN1. Although the Teke and Yaka communities reached a customary peace agreement in mid-2024, the Mobondo continued their operations, reportedly killing five civilians within hours of the Teke-Yaka agreement. Violence subsided for a period in early 2024, but resurfaced again a few months later.
Reports indicate that the Mobondo aimed to assert dominance over the Congolese section of the Bateke Plateau. They sought to rename it the ‘Lunda Plateau’, in reference to the ancient Yaka kingdom of Lunda, which they claim once encompassed the area. Furthermore, the Mobondo fighters alleged that the Teke mismanaged the land and sold property that belonged to the Yaka. On this basis, they justified their attacks as a means to reclaim land and restore peace by removing the Teke presence.
Fetishes and ritual practices played an important role in the conflict. Both Yaka and Suku communities believed that the rituals made them stronger, invisible, and invincible to enemies. In June 2022, the Kingdom of Belgium returned the Suku “Kakuungu” Mask. The mask was said to have been designed for war, and was reportedly used when the ancient Suku king, or Mini-Kongo, resisted colonization. The current Mini-Kongo, said to be a descendant of the kings who ruled the ancient Kingdom of Kongo, took part in the ceremonial reception of the Suku Mask in August 2022. The return of the mask was considered a moment of renewed cultural cohesion in the Suku community, and was said to return their powers. This event coincided with the escalation of violence between Teke and Yaka communities and the creation of the Mobondo militia. Mobondo fighters themselves have explained that the fetishes and rituals performed by the Kiamvu (the Yaka spiritual leader) make them invisible and insensitive to violence.
Initially, the Mobondo arsenal consisted of machetes and 12-calibre hunting rifles, but later they used AK-type assault rifles, PKM machine guns and grenade launchers.
The structure of the Mobondo militia was unclear. They may be a coalition of loosely connected gangs, or a hierarchical organization with a central command. What is known is that in 2023 they controlled several abandoned farms, which served as operational bases, and each was reportedly led by its own commander. The militia was primarily composed of members of the Yaka ethnic group, many of whom were minors. These tended to be vulnerable to recruitment due to economic hardship, while others were forcefully recruited and radicalized. New recruits appear to have been required to participate in fetishist rituals as part of their initiation.
The Mobondo fighters employed a range of violent methods in their operations. They often entered villages wearing old military uniforms, targeting village chiefs and their close associates. These killings created confusion and panic and prompted many residents to flee.Their actions included raiding, looting, and burning down villages, specifically targeting key infrastructure such as health centers, schools, churches, and homes. Civilians were victims of arson attacks, kidnappings, and indiscriminate killings. The fighters also ambushed vehicles along the RN17 and other major roads. Reports indicated that the Mobondo created lists of target villages, chiefs, and farms, carrying out military-style attacks based on these plans. They occupied abandoned farms and used them as operational bases and launched attacks before retreating back to these positions. When Mobondo fighters were arrested or detained, the group would retaliate against civilian populations.
Kiamvu Odon was one of the earliest leaders of the Mobondo. He was among six individuals, including two known as ‘Cobra’ and ‘Saddam’, for whom police issued search warrants due to their alleged roles in leading the group. The current Suku Mini-Kongo, Kavabioko Fabrice Zombi, held considerable political influence in Kinshasa. He was appointed by the President to lead a commission to resolve the Teke-Yaka conflict in Maï-Ndombe province. However, his close ties to the Yaka community drew criticism as he was accused of collaborating with the Mobondo, instigating the conflict, and arming them as one of their main féticheurs.
