SUMMARY
Kamuina Nsapu was a militia movement that emerged in Kasaï Central Province, DR Congo (Zaire), in 2016 and later spread across the wider Kasaï region. The group originated in a conflict between the Government of DR Congo and Jean-Pierre Mpandi, who claimed the hereditary title of Kamuina Nsapu, the traditional chief of the Bajila Kasanga, also known as Bashila, groupement. After Mpandi was killed by government forces on 12 August 2016, the movement expanded rapidly and became a broader armed rebellion against state authority in the Kasaï region.
The Kamuina Nsapu militia’s stated incompatibility concerned control of the Government of DR Congo. Although the movement began as a dispute over local customary authority, it developed into an armed struggle against the Congolese state. Jean-Pierre Mpandi had described the Congolese government as an “Occupation Government” in a 2013 paper and argued that the country had to be liberated through an operation known as “kabukulu”. He called on people to defend Congolese soil against foreign mercenaries and their occupying government. During the 2016 uprising, Mpandi instructed other traditional rulers to revolt against all symbols of the state and to send young people for initiation and training so that militias could take action to destabilize the government.
The background to the uprising lay in the political and economic marginalization of the Kasaï region. Kasaï, which had been divided in the 1960s into Kasaï Orientale and Kasaï Occidental and then again in 2015 into Kasaï Central, Kasaï, Kasaï Oriental, Lomami, and Sankuru provinces, was one of the poorest regions of DR Congo (Zaire). It was also known as a stronghold of support for Étienne Tshisekedi and the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS), the main opposition party at the time. The central government’s handling of customary authority in the region was therefore interpreted by many local actors through the wider political conflict between the Kabila government and the opposition.
Kamuina Nsapu was the hereditary title of the chief of the Bajila Kasanga groupement. The chief of this groupement had traditionally exercised influence over neighboring areas along the border with Angola. After the previous chief died in 2011, Jean-Pierre Mpandi was expected to inherit the title. The Congolese government refused to recognize his appointment, however, and the dispute over local leadership intensified. When Mpandi returned from South Africa in April 2016, where he had worked as a doctor, the government instead decided to recognize one of his brothers, a local member of President Joseph Kabila’s ruling PPRD party, as chief. Around this time, the first reports appeared of an armed group calling itself Kamuina Nsapu.
The militia initially operated in Kasaï Central Province but later spread across the five provinces of Greater Kasaï: Kasaï Central, Kasaï, Kasaï Oriental, Lomami, and Sankuru. The movement also affected areas close to the border with Angola. Its expansion followed both the mobilization of traditional leaders and the anger caused by the government’s violent attempt to suppress the uprising. After Mpandi’s death, the Kamuina Nsapu phenomenon spread beyond the original Bajila Kasanga leadership dispute and became a wider anti-government mobilization.
Most Kamuina Nsapu members were of Luba ethnicity. The group drew support from young people, local communities, and some traditional leaders who opposed the government’s interference in customary succession and broader state authority. Many members were children or very young recruits. Local traditional rulers who joined the movement were reportedly instructed to send youths to be initiated and trained. Leaders from villages such as Kayasampi, Mindula, and Kabundi responded favorably to Mpandi’s call.
The movement did not have a stable centralized command structure after Jean-Pierre Mpandi’s death. During Mpandi’s lifetime, his authority as the claimant to the Kamuina Nsapu title provided the movement with a unifying figure. After he was killed on 12 August 2016, the militia fragmented into locally mobilized groups acting under different commanders, ritual specialists, and traditional leaders. The lack of a single leader contributed to the rapid spread of the movement but also made it difficult to control.
Kamuina Nsapu fighters used red as a unifying symbol. Initiation rituals and magical practices similar to those of Mayi Mayi groups were central to the movement. These rituals were believed to provide protection in battle and helped create cohesion among recruits. The group used locally available weapons and also captured or obtained firearms during attacks. Its tactics included attacks on state symbols, security forces, administrative buildings, and civilians associated with the state or rival communities.
Jean-Pierre Mpandi was the founder and first central leader of the movement. After his death, known militia leaders included General Tshimbala, André Kabumbu, and Kanku Nkata, also known as Muena Nsangu. In March 2018, Kamuina Nsapu fighters reportedly began to reorganize around a new self-proclaimed chief known as Nsabanga.
Kamuina Nsapu’s violence and the government’s response transformed the conflict in Kasaï. The militia initially targeted representatives and symbols of the Congolese state, but the violence later became intertwined with communal conflict and reprisals. The spread of the rebellion contributed to the formation of pro-government militias such as Bana Mura, which targeted communities accused of supporting Kamuina Nsapu. The conflict caused large-scale displacement, civilian killings, and severe human rights abuses across the Kasaï region.
