SUMMARY
Dayak is an umbrella term covering a large number of various related ethnic groups indigenous to the interior of Borneo, both Indonesian Kalimantan and Malaysian Sabah and Sarawak. The Dayaks speak a variety of related Austronesian languages, and are mainly organized around traditional tribal, clan and sub-clan structures. Some Dayak sub-groups are Protestant or Catholic Christian (mainly in Western Kalimantan), while others are devoutly Muslim, especially in Central Kalimantan, where almost all Sampit Dayaks follow Islam. However, despite the different religions, most Dayak tribes continue to follow some traditional beliefs and indigenous honour codes. One such honour-code relates to the traditional dispute resolution mechanism, that allows for fist fights, but not for anything that would cause injuries - if blood is shed, the entire clan is expected to declare war on the perpetrator. Such honour codes have been significant in the escalation of communal violence in the 1990s.
Most Dayaks live in rural areas, being mainly involved in slash-and-burn forestry and agriculture. Throughout the latter part of the 20th century, the Dayaks have been marginalized politically and economically by the central authorities of Indonesia. As such, the Dayak traditional land rights were not recognized by law, with much of their lands being given to various business interests by the Suharto administration. Further, few Dayaks made their way into the Indonesian academia, military or the administration, at either the provincial or national level. Moreover, a vast program of relocating various other communities to Kalimantan from more densely populated areas such as Java or Madura (the Transmigration Program), created further pressure on the Dayaks, as newly arrived immigrants competed with the already present Dayaks for the relatively few resources available. This created substantial resentment within the Dayak communities, targeted against both the state and immigrant communities, such as the Madurese in the 1990s and the Chinese in the 1960s.
There is no over-reaching organization or leadership covering all the Dayaks. Besides the traditional clan leadership, there are various NGOs claiming to represent the Dayak point of view and various Dayak interests, and various Dayak associations and parties with a local or regional coverage. Moreover, various Dayak clans are known to collaborate in conflict, based on traditional honour codes. Further, throughout the 1980s and 1990s, a strengthening of the Dayak identity was noted by various scholars.
The Dayaks have been involved in the non-state category of UCDP organised violence.
The Malay (Indonesia) are located mainly in the coastal parts of Sumatra, the Riau islands and around the west coast of Kalimantan, in Indonesia. They are also part of a wider Malay group, which inhabits the Malay Peninsula and its surrounding islands; this area spans across several countries including Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand. The characteristics defined for this broader categorization of Malay varies and can include different traits such as cultural, linguistic or religious specifications. Within Indonesia, the Malay are viewed as an indigenous ethnic group and constitute approximately 4% of the total Indonesian population, which makes it one of the largest ethnic groups in the country. The language used by the Malay in the Riau islands is the foundation of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia.
The Malay predominantly follow Islam; in certain areas, this is notably more strict than in other parts of Indonesia, especially in the autonomous region of Aceh. However, in other areas, certain traditions and rituals continue to draw from other religions that pre-date the diffusion of Islam in Indonesia during the 14th century. The Malay have a seafaring background and live mostly in rural villages, working as wet rice farmers, on rubber tree plantations or as laborers on larger farms for their livelihood. Nonetheless, urban Malays also occupy a diversity of roles such as civil servants, technicians and small business owners.
Prior to and during the colonial periods, Malay sultanates and aristocracy dominated parts of western Indonesia. In these areas, many people from other ethnic groups converted to Islam and were absorbed into the Malay over the centuries, especially because the Malay had the greatest access to education and jobs. However, the large-scale migration program implemented in the 1960s brought significant demographic changes to the country as the government encouraged people from over-populated islands to migrate to less-densely populated islands such as Kalimantan. This increased competition for economic resources and political power in the less-densely populated areas, especially due to the higher relative wealth of the migrants. Nonetheless, it wasn’t until the resignation of President Suharto in 1998 that the subsequent period of reform threatened to marginalize the Malay. Large-scale decentralization to the local level and the division of smaller administrative units risked their privileged position as these created more ethnically segregated districts.
Between 1998 and 2000, there was a strengthening of the ethno-Malay identity in some areas. For example, in the Riau islands, Malay elite formed a movement to threaten their territorial succession unless they were granted a greater share of resource revenues from the Government of Indonesia. In West Kalimantan, after early clashes with the Madurese, the Forum Komunikasi Pemuda Melayu or Communication Forum of Malay Youth (FKPM) established itself in 1999. Comprised of leading yet questionable figures from the Malay community, the group played a prominent role in mobilizing the youth and local hoodlums during the 1999 clashes against the Madurese. Following these, the FKPM and other Malay organizations refocused their energies towards political mobilization. At the national level, the Malay were not discriminated against but they were not politically relevant in the Indonesian government until after 1998. Since then, the Malay have been included in the executive as junior partners in the government.
In 1999, the Malay allied with the Dayak against the Madurese (see Dayak, Malay – Madurese). During these clashes, it was reported that weapons were received from Malaysia but figures were unknown.
