SUMMARY
M23 (March 23 Movement, Mouvement du 23-Mars), with its armed wing ARC, (Armée révolutionaire du Congo, Congolese Revolutionary Army) was an armed group active in the Nord Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The group operated in two major phases: the first between 2012-2013 and the second from 2020-2023. M23 was formed in 2012 by defectors from the Congolese army, many of whom were former members of CNDP a rebel group integrated into the Congolese army (FARDC) under the terms of the 23 March 2009 peace agreement.
In early 2012, former CNDP soldiers started to defect from the army. They formed a group called Conseil Supérieur de la Paix (CONSUP). CONSUP planned a mutiny in Bukavu, which was aimed to start an uprising against President Kabila following flawed Presidential elections. The future military leader and spokesperson of M23, Sultani Makenga and Vianney Kazarama, were both connected to the CONSUP mutiny. In late March 2012, Bosco Ntaganda, also a prominent person in the M23 leadership, defected. In a memo, he explained that the defection was due to mistreatment in the army. The defectors felt underpaid, poorly fed and overlooked for promotions. On 4 May 2012 Colonel Sultani Makenga and his officers defected and M23 was formed as a group on 6 May 2012.
After nearly two years of violent conflict M23 capitulated on 5 November 2013 following military defeat. The head of the M23 said in a statement that he was ending the rebellion according to the recommendations of the talks in Kampala. However, negotiations in Kampala failed to result in a formal peace agreement due to Kinshasa’s refusal to grant blanket amnesty or to formally sign the accord. In December 2013, both parties signed separate declarations. M23 then largely disappeared from public view until a resurgence began in 2017 and culminated in major offensives beginning in late 2021. The gain of the operations were limited until April 2022 when the M23 faction of Bisimwa joined the ranks. The group took control over important towns in Rutshuru and closed in on Goma. On 15 December 2023, M23 merged into the AFC alliance, at which point it ceased to exist as a standalone actor in UCDP data.
M23 was originally founded to revive the unfulfilled terms of the 23 March 2009 peace agreement. Over time, their political rhetoric evolved. On 2 July 2012 Lieutenant Colonel Vianney Kazarama, M23s military spokesperson, told Think Africa Press: "we are upset by the Congolese governments fraudulent election and failure to improve the living conditions of the Congolese people; we want to chase the government in Kinshasa from power. We are calling for a revolution." In July 2012, M23 launched a political wing and appointed a spokesperson Jean Marie Runiga. In a statement, Runiga claimed that rebel fighters wanted the Kinshasa government to become accountable to its people, end corruption as well as the mistreatment of minority groups in order to end the current unrest. When reappearing in 2020, M23 grievances centered on stalled negotiations and demands for amnesty, asset recovery, reintegration into the army, and political participation. They also continued to claim to fight for the protection of the Tutsi community from alleged genocide and the neutralization of the FDLR, an aim that had been voiced by all other Rwanda supported rebellions in the country. In 2023, M23 demanded broader reforms of the government including the end of corruption and military restructuring, rejecting ongoing negotiation attempts.
M23 was primarily active in Nord Kivu province, especially in the Rutshuru territory. In 2012 they controlled most parts of the Rutshuru and for a short while they managed to take control over Goma, the provincial capital of Nord Kivu. From 2017 onward, remnants of the group were based in a small area around Mount Sabinyo within Virunga National Park. The group later expanded into controlling large parts of the Nord Kivu province during the 2022–2023 offensives and in this phase the group was headquartered in Tshanzu, a strategic area near the border with Uganda and Rwanda.
M23’s core membership was predominantly composed of Congolese Tutsis, many of whom had previously been part of CNDP and the Congolese army. Some leaders had a transnational background, having fought with the FPR in Rwanda before joining various Rwandan-backed insurgencies in the DR Congo.
M23 maintained both military and political branches. The political wing was launched in July 2012 and the armed wing, ARC, was formally established in October 2012. Leadership was hierarchical, with Colonel Sultani Makenga as overall commander and a tier of mid-ranking officers responsible for field operations and recruitment. The group was trained by Rwanda. In both phases M23 established administrative structures in controlled areas, such as local governance naming several new local chiefs and tax collection.
Initially, M23 started with 300–700 soldiers, growing to 1500–2500 by mid-2012. In October 2012, the group captured Goma, demonstrating significant operational capacity. In its second phase, the group started out with an estimated 100–200 troops in 2021, expanding to around 400 in 2022 and approximately 3000 by 2023. M23 demonstrated the ability to fight on multiple fronts for extended periods and used advanced weaponry. In both phases they established training camps
Leadership but from the start, the group was divided in two branches with one being closer to Bosco Ntaganda. Both Sultani Makenga and Bosco Ntaganda had a background fighting for the FPR in the Rwandan civil war. Makenga then joined both Rwanda supported rebellions in Dr Congo (Zaire) first AFDL in the conflict against Mobotu's regime and then RCD in the conflict against the Kabila-led government. Bosco Ntaganda had been part of the Ituri militia UPC before becoming the military Chief of Staff in CNDP. Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero led the political wing of M23 until internal factional clashes in 2013when Runiga sided with the faction led by Ntaganda and Bertrand Bisimwa became President political leader over Makengas faction. After 2017, M23 was restructured under Sultani Makenga's military leadership. Bertrand Bisimwa again acted as the political leader. Colonel Yusuf Mboneza directed field operations during the 2021–2023 campaigns.
In February 2013, the divide between the two leaders, Makenga and Ntaganda deepened and after signing the Framework agreement on 24 February 2013, violent clashes between the two M23 factions broke out. When Makenga dismissed Runinga as political leader M23-R was formed as a splinter faction. The two factions became involved in a month of After a month of factional fighting ending on 18 March 2013 when Bosco Ntaganda handed himself in to the U.S. embassy in Kigali, Rwanda where he requested transfer to the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands.
M23 forged alliances with a long list of militias in the eastern areas of the DR Congo. Among them FDC (Forces de défense Congolaises, Congolese Defence Forces, NDC (Nduma Defence of Congo), Raia Mutomboki and UPCP (Union des patriotes Congolais pour la paix, Union of Congolese Patriots for Peace) in the first phase and Zaire self-defense group, AFP Gutabara and
During 2012–2013, M23 received substantial support from both Rwanda and Uganda. Rwanda provided direct military support, including troops, arms, ammunition, and logistical backing. Uganda offered similar support and facilitated recruitment and movement. Following the group’s resurgence, Rwanda continued its backing, supplying arms, ammunition, and troop support. Uganda allowed M23/ARC to transit and operate from its territory, despite officially being aligned with the Congolese government at the time.
